English for Students of Metallurgy. Английский для студентов металлургических специальностей: Учебное пособие (doc)

Chapter 1

Unit 1

Metal-Making And Civilization

Text 1

Metals in Perspective

Modern civilization is based on metals and millions of tons are extracted from the surface of the Earth every year. The place of metals in the modern world is surpreme in importance. About three-quarters of all known chemical elements are metals.

Since the Stone Age, man has found many materials he could work with. However, the materials that helped him most to develop were the metals. In many regions of the Ancient World man used lumps of native metals he could pick from the surface of the ground: gold nuggets, lumps of native copper and silver.

Archaeologists have found evidence of early metal-work dating as far back as 10,000 BC. Such finds were made in the Middle East, where deposits of copper were most plentiful. This does not mean that this metal was easy to find, but that there were more deposits in the Middle East than other parts of the world.

Copper seems to be the first metal which began to oust stone. The need for copper was great indeed. The advantages that copper had over stone as a material for weapons, tools, were obvious. The metal occured naturally in the pure (free) state and had many good things about it: it could readily be worked to any shape, flattened, pointed and holed. At first, man made it into small things such as arrowheads. Before long, however, man noticed that when hammered copper becomes harder and stronger, but if it is held over a fire - soft, malleable, easy to work.

Gold is the most malleable of all the metals. It is much softer than copper and not very strong. But gold has been valued for thousands of years for its beautiful luster and scarcity.

In about 4300 BC in the region of the Caspian Sea man discovered the process of smelting - how to extract the metals from their ores.

Two new metals came into use at this time - about 4,000 BC. The first was silver, prized in those days as it is today, for its beauty, and used for ornaments. It was sometimes found `free', lying around, as was gold, but was mostly smelted from ores. The second metal was lead, a dull heavy metal, soft and easily shaped into cups and beakers. Lead is never found `free'; it has always been smelted from ore.

During the next 1,000 years the knowledge of the four metals far known - gold, copper, silver and lead - spread to other lands. Troy (home of Helen), near the Dardanelles, was the chief centre of trade and from there goods were carried by boat into Europe. The River Danube provided a highway deep into the continent, and the traders' boats also took metal goods to all countries around the Mediterranean. Eventually they reached Britain, and the art of smelting and metal working became known in this country. Quite early in the history of metal the process of casting was used to shape metal.

So, during the many centuries of his history man has learnt how to mine, smelt and work many metals. But iron - the chief metal of present times - has given the name of Iron Age to the most significant and productive period in the development of human society.

Task 1

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below:

surface /'s?:fis/; surpreme /s? `pri:m/; nugget /'n/\git/; malleable /'mж li? bl/; scarcity /'sk??siti/; ornament /'o:n?m?nt/; ore /o:/; require /ri'kwai?/; deposit /di'pozit/; obvious /'obvi?s/; chemical /'kemik?l/; oust /aust/; surroundings /s?`raundinz/; monetary /'m/\ nit?ri/; available /?`veil?bl/; treatment /'tri:tment/; lead /led/.

Task 2

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word- combinations

given below. Use them in the sentences of your own.

современная цивилизация	добывать металл
иметь огромное значение	химический элемент
куски природного металла	золотой самородок
месторождение меди	преимущество меди над камнем
встречаться в чистом виде	твердый
подвергаться термической обработке	мягкий
ковкий	блеск
плавка (плавление)	извлечение чистого металла из руды
обрабатывать металл	свинец

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents.

1. the place of metals in the modern	1. придавать любую форму world
2. to pick from the surface of the ground	2. твердый материал
3. deposits of copper	3. как и серебро
4. the need for iron	4. наиболее широко используемый металл
5. to work to any shape	5. обрабатывать металлы
6. alongside with silver	6. место металлов в современном мире
7. a hard material	7. основные металлургические ремесла
8. basic metallurgical arts	8. потребность в железе
9. the most widely used metal	9. поднять с поверхности земли
10. to work metals	10. месторождения меди

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

What is modern civilization based on?
What were the materials that helped man most to develop? Why?
Was iron the first metal to oust stone?
When did man start using metals?
Where was evidence of early metal-work found?
Why is gold widely used for ornaments?
What was the 4th metal discovered and what are its properties?

Exercise 4. Complete the following statements by choosing the answer which

you think fits best. Are the other answers unsuitable? Why?

1. Modern civilization is based on metals because:

a) three quarters of all known chemical elements are metals.

b) they can be used to produce a wide variety of things.

c) they are very cheap.

2. Gold has been used for ornaments for thousands of years because:

a) it has beautiful luster.

b) it is not very strong.

c) it is scarce.

3. Heat treatment is used because:

a) it makes iron harder.

b) it protects iron against corrosion.

c) it improves the properties of iron.

4. Copper began to oust stone because:

a) it could be readily worked to any shape.

b) there was more copper than stone on the surface of the Earth.

c) it had a beautiful luster.

Exercise 5. Give a written Russian translation of the following definitions.

Copper - a ductile, malleable, reddish-brown metallic element that is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. It is widely used either pure or in alloys such as brass or bronze.

Gold - a soft yellow, corrosion-resistant element, the most malleable ductile metal, occuring in veins and alluvial deposits and recovered by mining, or by panning sluicing. It is a good thermal and electrical conductor, generally alloyed to increase its strength, and used as an international monetary standard, in jewelry, for decoration and as a plated coating on a wide variety of electrical and mechanical components.

Silver - a lustrous white, ductile malleable metallic element, occuring both uncombined and in ores such as argentite, having the lightest thermal and electrical conductivity of the metals. It is highly valued for jewelry, tableware and other ornamental use, and is widely used in coinage, photography, dental and soldering alloys, electrical contacts and printed circuits.

Lead - soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white, dense metallic element, extracted chiefly from galena.

Task 3

Focus on Grammar

Articles

The indefinite articles (a, an) are used with countable nouns when they are singular (a metal, an element).

The definite article (the) may be used with plural nouns and with either countable or uncountable single nouns:

to specify something that has been already mentioned:

The elements, I have mentioned, are very active.

To refer to something that is unique:

a planet - the earth

To express superlatives:

the heaviest element

With ordinal numbers:

the twenty-first century; the last paper

With a noun that is followed by an of phrase:

the atomic number of oxygen

article is not used	only `the' is used
1) before abstract nouns: Life is wonderful!	1) before proper names of groups of islands, chains of mountains, plural names of deserts, coutries: the Alps; the Atlantic, the Thames the USA. the Netherlands.
2) before names of people and places (except those in the right column). But the Smiths (= the Smith family).	2) with certain other names: the Sudan, the Yemen, the Hague
3) after a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive pronoun: this is my book	3) before names consisting of adjective+noun: the Gold Coast, the High Street
4) before `home'	4) before names consisting of noun+of+noun the Cape of Good Hope, the Union of South Africa

Exercise 1. Explain the use of the articles or their absence.

Gold is a rather rare element. 2. Sheila is a student. Her subject is mathematics. 3. The Hymalayas form a wall along the north of India. 4.They decided to have dinner with the Browns. 5. In fact Russian managers enjoy more freedom to make decisions. 6. Professor Rogers is a physisist. His special field is classical physics. 7. Every fifteen years Mars comes within about 56 million kilometres of Earth (the next approach will occur in the summer of 2003). 8. Physical metallurgy deals with the nature, structure and physical properties of metals and alloys. 9. The chemical elements are devided into metals and non-metals. 10. Man knows how to mine, smelt and work metals. 11. The Mediterranian was one of the main sea-routs to transport metals in ancient times. 12. Very little hydrogen is found free in nature.

Exercise 2. Fill in the spaces with articles whenever necessary.

1. ... iron occurs only sparingly in ... free state. 2. In ... distant times ... Caucasus was probably connected with ... Balcans. 3. ... United States of America is located on ... American continent. 4. ... Manhattan lies at .... mouth of ... Hudson River. 5. They went to ... Swiss Alps for ... Christmas holidays. 6. I like ... tea, but she prefers ... mineral water. 7. ... ancient Greece and Rome were known for their excellent metal workers. 8. She has just returned from ... Hague. 9. I don't know where ... Cape of ... Good Hope is. ... Geography is not my best subject. 10. ... Doctor Albert Arnott, who is a nuclear physicist, does not have much administrative work to do though he is ... Head of Department of ... Atomic Physics at Cambridge. He has ... very good assistant. 11. When I was in ... London I liked to walk in ... Trafalgar Square. 12. ... body at ... rest tends to remain at ... reat, and ... body in ... motion tends to remain in ... motion. 13. ... Browns are my neighbours. 14. ... Guardian is among ... most popular British newspapers. 15. He stood by ... window of ... sitting-room which overlooked ... Hyde Park. 16. ... capital of ... United States, Washington, D.C., is not located in any state, but lies between ... states of Maryland and ... Virginia. 17. ... future of ... British education depends on ... success of ... radical reforms of ... present Government. 18. ... Britain was ... rural country until ... end of ... 18th century. 19. … effect of radiation on … living things depends on … amount of radiation absorbed and … rate of absorption.

Text 2

Pre - reading tasks.

1. Find the answers to the following questions:

What was Hephaestus?
Was he a lovely, healthy child?
Why was he returned to Olympus?
Did he help much to the gods of Olympus?
Did his children resemble him?

2. Give the titles to the paragraphs of the text.

3. What other Greek or Roman gods do you know? What did they patronize?

Pronouncing Dictionary

Hephaestus /hi'fi:st?s/ Zeus /zju:s/ Hera /'hiar / Thetis /'?etis/ Eurinome /ju?`rain?m/ Artemis /'a:timis/ Apollo /ж`polou/

Palaemon /'pжl?m?n/ Ardalus /'a:d?l?s/

Hephaestus

Hephaestus was born into the family of Zeus and Hera, the supreme rulers of the Greek gods, who lived on Olympus. When Hera saw her ugly deformed child (he was lame), she threw him out. The infant fell into the ocean, where Thetis and Eurinome, the Oceanid found him and brought him up for nine years in their cave, unknown to the gods or Hera. It was here that he learnt his arts of a metalworker. He made a golden throne for his mother and sent it to her. There was a trap in the throne, and when Hera sat on it, she could not leave it, and none of the gods was able to help her. It was his revenge. So the gods sent for Hephaestus. They invited him to come to Olympus.

On Olympus he became a master craftsman, the smith and metal-founder for the gods. Hephaestus was very useful to the Olympians. He built splendid halls and palaces and enabled the gods to live in great luxury. He even made armour for mortal men when a goddess asked him about it.

Hephaestus had a workshop on Olympus where, in the great battle of the gods and giants, he used molten iron to quell the giant Mimas. Hephaestus also forged the chain that bound Prometheus to the top of Mount Caucasus; and he made Zeus' thunderbolts and the arrows of Artemis and Apollo.

His children (mostly lame like himself) included the Argonaut Palaemon and Ardalus, inventor of the flute.

Task 2

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Here are the answers to some questions about the text.

Work out the questions.

1) Zeus and Hera were the supreme rulers of the Greek Gods. 2) Hera threw Hephaestus out because he was an ugly deformed child. 3) Hephaestus was returned to Olympus to free his mother Hera. 4) On Olympus he became a master craftsman. 5) Yes, he also became the smith and metal founder for the gods. 6) His son Ardalus was inventor of the flute. 7) No, Hephaestus didn't use boiled water, he used molten iron to quell the giant Mimas.

Exercise 2. Read the text carefully and agree or disagree with the

statements given below.

1. Hephaestus was born by Athena. 2. Hephaestus was a charming, healthy child, and his mother loved him very much. 3. Hephaestus' revenge was very crafty. 4. He made armour both for gods and for mortal men. 5. Hephaestus didn't work on Olympus, he preferred working among mortal people. 6. He was the chief god of commerce. 7. He was very skilled and enabled gods to live in luxury.

Exercise 3. Look at the text and find words or phrases which mean the same as:

chief, main	newborn child	Produce
be able	Wonderful	Fight
avenge	give a possibility

Exercise 4. Put the jumbled sentences in the right order to get

an organized text.

1. William Shakespear, the greatest and most famous of English writers, was born in 1564.

2. There is a story that Shakespeare's first job was to hold rich men's horses at the theatre door.

3. The last half of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th centuries are known as the golden age of English literature.

4. His father, John Shakespeare, was a merchant and he had several houses in Stratford.

5. Later Shakespeare became an actor.

6. His mother, Mary Arden, was a farmer's daughter.

7. Shakespeare wrote 37 plays and 154 sonnets.

8. He was a great humanist and believed in the high and noble features of man's mind.

Oral Practice

Meeting people. Family. Occupation. Hobbies.

Patterns

Questions	Replies
1. What is your name?	1. My name is ...
2. Where are you from?	2. I am from Russia.
3. Are you married? No, I'm single/divorced	3. Yes, I am.
4. Have you got any children?	4. Yes, I've got a boy who is nine years old and an eighteen-year old girl.
5. What do you do?	5. I'm an engineer.
6. Where do you work?	6. I work in an office.
7. What are you interested in?	7. I'm interested in music/sports/dancing
8. What do you like?	8. I like skating/playing football/reading books.
9. What is you hobby?	9. I like collecting stamps.
10. Do you like going to disco clubs at your leisure?	10. Not much.

Family: grandmother, grandfather, grandparents, mother, father, parents, son, daughter, children, brother, sister, cousin, uncle, aunt, husband, wife, father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, in-laws.

Occupations: student, engineer, teacher, secretary, doctor, car mechanic, plumber, carpenter, photographer, librarian, laboratory assistant, hairdresser, nurse, bank clerk.

Exercise 1. Fill in the questioneer.

Personal details

Surname . . . . . . First name . . . . .

Nationality . . . . Date of birth . . .

Occupation . . . . Place of birth . . .

Date of arrival in Britain . . . . .

Length of stay . . . . . .

Exercise 2. Try to quess the job by asking questions like these:

Do you . . . wear a uniform / a suit/ overalls

work inside/outside/ in an office/ in a bank/at a clinic

make things

draw schemes

attend the lectures

repair cars

give lectures

look after patients

count the money

Are you a . . .?

Exercise 3. Complete the following sentences.

1. My mother's sister is my . . . 2. My father's brother is my . . .

3.My wife's father is my . . . 4. My husband's mother is my . . .

5. My uncle's daughter is my . . . 6. My wife's brother is my . . .

7. My father's mother is my . . . 8. My husband's relatives are my . . .

Exercise 4. Learn the dialogue by heart and make a dialogue of your own,

using the patterns.

Ben: Hello! My name is Ben. What is your name?

Susan: My name is Susan.

Ben: Nice to meet you, Susan. Where are you from?

Susan: I am from York. And where are you from?

Ben: I'm from Melburn. I'm Australian.

Susan: Glad to meet you. What do you do?

Ben: I'm an engineer. And what are you?

Susan: I'm a teacher. Have you got a family?

Ben: Yes, I'm married, with two children.

Exercise 5. What questions would you ask if the replies are:

1. I'm from France.

2. She is a student.

3. He drives lorries.

4. Hans is from Germany.

5. I'm Swedish.

6. She is an assistant in a shop.

7. He's a teacher.

8. They are from Russia.

Exercise 6. Pretend, you've been in England for three days, but you haven't made any friends yet. Then, one morning, you are having coffee during the morning break and a student comes and sits next to you…. Think of some questions the student might ask.How would you reply? What questions could you ask?

Unit 2

Text 1

The Importance of Iron and Advent of Steel

Life seems impossible now without iron, the cheapest and most important metal we use. Iron is extracted from a rocky material called iron ore. Like many elements, iron is too reactive to exist on its own in the ground. Instead, it combines with other elements, especially oxygen, in ores. The chemical process for extracting a metal from its ore is called smelting.

The first people who discovered how to extract iron from iron ore were the Hittites, a powerful group of people living in Asia Minor and Syria - south of the Black Sea. They kept the process a closely guarded secret. The Egyptians, for example, had to pay the Hittites in gold four times the weight of iron and once deceived them with lumps of bronze covered with a thin layer of gold.

The smelting of iron was the most important metallurgical development. Iron-ore is plentiful all over the world, therefore it may seem surprising that such a long time elapsed before iron was produced. The reason was that the furnaces used to smelt copper were not hot

Sometimes the early iron-workers, or smiths, accidentally produced a steel article instead of an iron one. Steel is iron with a small percentage of carbon in it. The carbon came from the fuel in the furnace in which the iron was heated. The smiths later learned from experience how to introduce this carbon when they wanted to produce steel.

Steel is stronger than iron, and can be made stronger still by quenching, which is the sudden cooling, in water or other fluids, from red-heat. However, steel becomes very brittle when made extremely hard, and as each smith used his own method the quality of the steel varied a great deal. Often a sword made by a poor smith snapped just when it was most needed.

In those days furnaces were not hot enough to melt iron completely. To extract the iron from the iron-ore, the ore was heated as much as possible (reducing the iron to a `spongy' consistency) and then hammered. This forced the bits of rock and other impurities out, leaving the iron behind. Great skill and dexterity were required, especially as tongs had not been invented and the hot metal was handled with green sticks.

Task 1

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

civilization /sivilai'zei? n/; iron /'ai?n/; especially /is'pe ?i?li/; oxygen /'oksij?n/; Hittites /'hitaits/; guarded /'ga:did/; furnace /'f ?:nis/; eventually /i'vent? u?li/; toughness /t/\ fnis/; superior /sju:'pi?ri?/; Celtic /'seltik/; percentage /p?`sentij/; quenching /'kwent? i? /; impurity / im'pju?riti/.

Task 2

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word - combinations

given below. Use them in the sentences of your own.

самый дешевый металл; самый важный металл; легко вступающий в реакцию; Малая Азия; к югу/ северу от; распространиться как на запад, так и на восток; покрыть тонким слоем золота; твердость; производство орудий труда и оружия; кузнец; процентное содержание углерода; добавлять углерод; закаливать металл/сталь; хрупкий; производить сталь; плавить железо; жидкое вещество; примеси; щипцы.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given below

with their Russian equivalents.

1. to extract iron 1. химический процесс

2. chemical process 2. учиться на опыте

3. a steel article 3. качество стали

4. the fuel in the furnace 4. раскаленный докрасна

5. to learn from experience 5. добывать железо

6. the quality of the steel 6. топливо в печи

7. to melt iron completely 7. требовать большого умения

8. to vary a great deal 8. полностью расплавить железо

9. to require great skill 9. отличаться во многом друг от

друга

10. steel becomes very brittle 10. изделие из стали

11. red-heat 11. сталь становится очень хрупкой

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions

1. Why is life impossible without iron? 2. Who first discovered how to extract iron from iron ore? 3. Why did they keep this process as a closely guarded secret? 4. How did the discovery of iron spread both east and west? 5. What is smelting? 6. What did the smiths do? 7. How did they get steel? 8. What process is called quenching? 9. Were the early smiths able to melt iron completely?

Exercise 4. Complete the following statements by choosing the answer which

you think fits best. Are the other answers unsuitable? Why?

1. Man cannot live without iron because:

a) it is easy to mine it. b) it is very cheap.

c) he uses it in his everyday life.

2. The Hittite kept the process of smelting a top-secret because:

a) they wanted to use iron only for themselves.

b) it helped them to sell iron at high price.

c) they were very ptimitive people.

3. Early smiths could not produce proper steel because:

a) they did not know the right percentage of carbon.

b) the furnaces were not hot enough. c) they tried to introduce oxygen.

4. Great skill and dexterity were required to extract iron from ore because:

a) iron was heated very quickly.

b) the furnaces were not hot enough and tongs hadn't been invented.

c) the hammer was too heavy.

Exercise 5. Give a written Russian translation of the following sentences.

Iron is the commonest of all metallic elements (symbol Fe), used in various forms. Practically all of the iron is extracted from its chemical compounds in the blast furnace. A certain amount of harmful impurities is always present in iron ore. Ferrous metals are used in industry in two general forms: cast iron and steel.

Steel is iron containing to 1.7 per cent carbon content. Pure iron is not used in industry because it is too soft.

Cast iron is a hard, brittle , non-malleable iron-carbon alloy containing 2.0 to 4.5 % carbon, 0.5 to 3% silicon and lesser amounts of sulphur, manganese and phosphorus.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Exercise 1. Explain the use (or absence) of the definite article in the cases

given below.

1. Life seems impossible without iron. 2. It is the cheapest metal. 3. Asia Minor. 4. The Black Sea. 5. The most important process. 6. Iron is the sixth metal discovered by man. 7. Iron appeared in Britain in the Bronze Age. 8. The first traces of iron. 9. A small percentage of carbon. 10. The carbon comes from the fuel in the furnace in which the iron was heated. 11. Great skill and dexterity were required.

Degrees of Comparison

long - longer - the longest

important - more important - the most important

Special cases: good - better - the best

bad - worse - the worst

little - less - the least

many/much - more - the most

far - farther - the farthest

further - the furthest

With the help of the degrees of comparison we can contrast differences.

For example: Mercury has the lowest melting point.

The melting point of copper is slightly higher than gold

and lower than platinum.

We can contrast differences also with the help of the following patterns.

is unlike не похож на

Iron is different from отличается от alunimiun

differs from

Unlike iron в отличие от

In contrast to iron aluminium is light

Compared to iron

In comparison to iron по сравнению с железом

Note: The structure “the”+Comparative+”the better”

The sooner you finish this work, the better it will be for you.

Чем скорее ты закончишь эту работу, тем это будет лучше для тебя.

We say: Can you come as soon as possible?

Ты можешь придти как можно раньше?

This book is not as interesting as the one I gave you yesterday.

Эта книга не так интересна, как та, которую я дал тебе вчера.

This dress is twice (three times) as expensive than my new suit.

Это платье в два (три) раза дороже моего нового костюма.

Silver is less malleable than gold.

Серебро менее ковкое, чем золото.

After superlatives we use preposition “in” with places.

For example: She is one of the nicest girls in the class.

Она - одна из самых приятных девочек в классе.

If “most” is used in the meaning of “very” the definite article is not used before this superlative.

The party you gave last night was most interesting.

Ваша вчерашняя вечеринка была очень интересной.

Other words that are used to show contrast are: although, but, however, in contrast, on the other hand, even though, nevertheless, on the contrary, yet, in spite of, despite.

Such words as similarly, likewise, in the same way, moreover, also, furthermore, besides are used for the comparison of similar items.

Exercise 2. In the text find the cases of comparing (or contrasting).

Explain the formation of the degrees of comparison.

Exercise 3. Using the table given below circle the answer that best

completes the statement.

Metal Melting Point Boiling Point

Copper 1083 2595

Silver 960 2212

Gold 1063 2966

1. Compared to the other metals on the table copper has . . . melting

point. a) the highest b) equal

2. . . . copper the melting point of silver is not very high.

a) unlike b) similar to

3. The boiling point of silver is . . . one.

a) identical b) the lowest

4. . . . to its melting point, the boiling point of gold is much higher.

a) compared to b) comparable

Exercise 4. Make up sentences of your own using the following phrases:

a meter longer; two times larger; twice bigger; compared to . . . it is much heavier; in contrast to . . . it is more interesting.

Exercise 5. Use the right degrees of comparison. Insert definite articles wherenever necessary.

Perhaps … life existed on … (warm, wet) Mars billions of years ago. 2. Can you do it as … (soon) as possible? 3. … Petrol is twice as … (expensive) as it was a year ago. 4. … lectures of this professor are … (interesting). 5. … test was … (easy) than we expected. 6. … Severn is … (long) river in England. 7. I know … (much) about … chemistry than you do. 8. … weather is getting … (bad and bad), I am afraid. 9. … (early) we leave, … (soon) we come back. 10. … problem is not so difficult, it is … (simple) than I expected. 11. … iron is … (cheap) metal we use. 12. …steel is … (strong) than iron. 13. … (high) the purity of titanium, … (low) is its strength. 14. A new study shows that students give … (high) evaluation to … (enthusiastic) and not necessarily …(good) teachers. … (big) difference between …two specimens was in their microstructures. 15. This is … (simple) form of plastic deformation.

Exercise 6. Here are some idioms of comparison. Translate them into Russian and use in the sentences of your own.

as true as steel - loyal, reliable
as tough as nails - strong-willed
as heavy as lead - very heavy
to sleep like a dog - to sleep very deeply
to be like a dog with two tails - to be very happy and proud about smth
to have a memory like a sieve - to have a very bad memory

Text 2

Pre - reading task.

What great names in the history of metallurgy do you know?

Some of the Great Names in the History of Metallurgy

Anosov, Pavel Petrovich (1799 - 1851), a Russian metallurgist. Entered the St.Petersburg Mining Corps of Cadets at the age of 11. Graduated with honours in 1817 and was appointed to a minor post at the Zlatoust Crown Works. Promoted to Supervisor of the Zlatoust Arms Factory in 1819, to its Superintendent in 1824, and its Manager in 1829. From 1831 on, Mining Chief of the Zlatoust Works. From 1847 until his death, Chief of the Altai Works.

Anosov won world renown for his writings on the manufacture of iron and his re-discovery of the secret of damaskene lost in the Middle Ages. He explained the effect of the chemical composition, structure and treatment of steel on its properties. His findings formed the basis for the science of quality steels. Anosov summed up his studies in his now classical treatise, `On Damaskene' (1841), immediately translated into German and French.

Anosov was the first to use the microscope in studies into the structure of steel (1831), thus laying the foundation for the microscopic analysis of metals.

Anosov was elected a corresponding member of the Kazan University (1844) and an honorary member of the Kharkov University (1846).

Bessemer, Sir Henry (1813 - 1898), a British civil engineer and inventor, elected to the London Royal Society in 1879. Patented over a hundred inventions in various fields of technology. Those most important were the needle die for postal stamps and the word-casting machine in 1838, the sugar cane press in 1849, and the centrifugal pump in 1850. While working on ways and means of improving the quality of a heavy artillery shell in 1854, he felt the need for a better steel-making process. In 1856 he patented a vessel for converting molten pig iron into steel. The process which took place in a vessel was named after him and revolutionized the iron and steel industry. In 1860, he patented a converter in which air is blown through the bottom and trunnions. He also advanced the idea of rolling steel without having to cast it into ingots.

Huntsman, Benjamin (1704 - 1776), a British metallurgist. Rediscovered around 1740 the crucible process of steel-making known to the ancients in India, Persia, Syria, and elsewhere but later lost to civilization. The crucible process produced strong steel.

Task 2

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Here are some answers to some questions about the text.

Work out the questions.

1. Pavel Anosov was 18 when he graduated from the Mining Corps of Cadets. 2. For a long time he was Mining Chief of the Zlatoust Works. 3. In his works he explained the effect of chemical composition of steel on its properties. 4. Bessemer patented over a hundred inventions in various fields of technology. 5. It was Bessemer who advanced the idea of rolling steel without casting it into ingots.

Exercise 2. Read the text carefully and agree or disagree with the

statements given below.

1. Anosov was a famous Russian painter. 2. Pavel Anosov re-discovered the secret of damaskene. 3. The secret of damaskene was lost in ancient time. 4. Henry Bessemer was an eletrician. 5. Bessemer had relatively few inventions. 6. Benjamin Huntsman is a well-known British metallurgist of the 18th century. 7. He re-discovered the process of making strong steel.

Exercise 3. Look through the text and find words which mean opposite of:

enter

cause

worsen

minor

birth

last

light modern

loose

war

hard

earlier

Such words are called antonyms.

Exercise 4. Put the jumbled sentences in the right order to get an

organized text.

1. From the walls George Peregrine's grandparents, painted by well-known painters, looked down upon husband and wife.

2. The Peregrines were having breakfast.

3. Though they were alone and the table was long, they sat at the opposite ends of it.

4. All this happened two or three years before the war.

5. They didn't speak much to each other.

6. She looked at her letters.

7. The son brought in the morning post.

8. He opened The Times and began to read it.

9. George noticed that his wife hadn't opened the letters.

10. They finished breakfast and rose from the table.

Oral Practice

Meeting People. Formulas of Introduction. Polite Phrases.

Greetings. Leaving

Hi! Bye-bye

Hello! Bye

How do you do? Good-bye

(Good) morning/afternoon/evening Have a nice day

How are you? So long

Nice/Glad to meet you Remember me to . . .

Haven't seen you for ages

Fancy meeting you here

Gratitude Replies to expressions of gratitude

Thank you (very much) Not at all

Thanks a lot Don't mention it

Thank you for (+ ing) You are welcome

Much obliged My pleasure

Introductions Replies

Meet my friend, her name is . . . Nice to meet you

Let me introduce my friend to you. Glad to meet you

Exercise 1. Make up short dialogues using the patterns.

1. introducing strangers to each other.

2. expressing gratitude for smth

3. greeting and leaving each other.

Exercise 2. Learn the conversation by heart. Make a conversation

of your own using the patterns.

At a meeting

Ben: Well, good morning. Before we start our meeting, let us introduce

ourselves. My name is Ben Green. I'm from Melbourn. I'm a civil

engineer and work for a firm. I'm thirty-two years old, married, with

two children. I'm going in for tennis and football. That's I think. all

about me. Who's the next?

Susan: I'm Susan Murphy. I live in York and work as a teacher of English.

I'm single. When I have free time I like gardening.

Peter: And my name is Peter O'Brien. I'm a computer programmer in IBM.

I'm 29 years old, divorced, no children. I'm interested in books and

dogs.

Ben: Sorry, Peter, and where are you from?

Peter: Oh, yes. I'm Irish and live in Belfast.

Unit 3

Text 1

Iron in the Middle Ages

Iron came to Britain long before the reign of William the Conqueror. There is evidence that the forging of iron was the chief trade of the city of Glousester. Yet iron continued to be scarce in England.

For some hundred years after the Norman Conquest considerable quantities of iron and steel were exported to Britain by Germany and other continental countries. The merchants who brought metals were known as “German merchants of the Steelyard”. The great quantities of iron and steel were sold at the Steel Yard in London.

According to the Act of Parliament no iron was to be carried out of the country. Some iron was manufactured in England in the reign of Henry III, but much was still imported from Germany and later from Spain.

During the reign of Edward I (1239 - 1307) there were seventy-two hearths in the Forest of Dean - a source of iron ore. By the time of Edward III (1312 - 1377) the chief centres were Kent and Sussex. That iron was still of great value is shown by an inventory of the king's possessions, in which his iron pots, pans, and other household utensils are classed as jewels and valuables.

No sensational developments in the manufacture of iron and steel had taken place; the local smiths converted the raw ore into wrought iron by means of charcoal obtained by burning timber from the forest round about and worked up this iron into the required shapes.

In the 14th century the direct extraction of wrought iron from the ore was gradually displaced by first carbonizing the metal, so turning it into cast iron. This displacement method has continued steadily up to the present day.

During the 14th and 15th centuries England continued to import iron and steel from the continent. The growing importance of the industry gave its owners a political influence that grew steadily from that day to this. Improvements in the manufacture of iron had taken place during this period, and the ironmasters succeded in getting Parliament to make laws prohibiting the importation into England of any iron or steel goods already made there. In 1483, for example, an Act was passed prohibiting the importation of knives, tailors' shears, scissors and irons, grid-irons, stock-locks, keys, hingers, spurs, bits, stittups, buckles for shoes, iron wire, iron candlesticks, grates and many other such objects.

Minor advances in the art of making iron continued up to the times of Elizabeth I and James I. Production increased, especially in Sussex. By this time the blast furnace had established itself for the smelting of iron. It continued slowly to rise higher and increase in diameter. The immediate problem confronting the iron manufacturer of the 16th century was the growing shortage of wood from which to make charcoal.

Task 1

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

reign /rein/; conqueror /'konk?r?/; Glousester /'gloust?/; manufacture / m?nju'fжkt??/; hearth /ha:? /; value /'vж lju:/; utensils /ju:'tensilz/; valuables /'vжlju?blz/; wrought /ro:t/; import /im'po:t/; prohibit /pr?`hibit/; knives /naivz/; key /ki:/; spur /sp?:/; diameter /dai'? mi:t?/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word - combinations

given below. Use them in the sentences of your own.

большое количество железа и стали; импортировать из; источник железной руды; высоко цениться; преобразовывать; обработанное железо; древесный уголь; постоянно расти; запрещать; опись; ценные вещи; обжигать (коксовать); решетка (сетка); скоба; диаметр; непосредственные проблемы, стоящие перед.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents.

1. long before 1. большое количество

2. to continue steadily up to the 2. во время правления

present day 3. растущая важность

3. in the reign of 4. преуспеть в ч-л

4. to displace gradually by 5. доменная печь

5. the growing importance 6. задолго до

6. to succeed in 7. продолжаться без изменений

7. the great quantaties of до настоящего времени

8. blast furnace 8. постепенно заменить ч-л

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions

1. When did iron first come to Britain? 2. Was it imported from Germany? 3. What shows that iron was of great value in Medieval Britain? 4. What displaced the direct extraction of wrought iron? 5. Why did the owners of metal industry get a political influence? 6. Did Parliament play an important role in the development of metal industry?

Exercise 4. Complete the following statements by choosing the answer

which you think fits best. Why are the other answers unsuitable?

1. That iron was of great importance is shown by an inventory of king's

possessions because:

a) things made of iron were classed as jewels and valuables.

b) King Edward III wrote about their value himself.

c) things made of iron could be used only by the king.

2. The owners of metal industry got a political influence because:

a) they had much money.

b) the industry grew in importance.

c) people wanted so.

3. The importation into England of any iron or steel goods was prohibited

by Parliament because:

a) it was necessary to develop native industry.

b) the native production stopped.

c) England didn't need them.

4. The immediate problem confronting the iron manufacturer was:

a) the lack of skills in steel-making.

b) the growing shortage of wood.

c) the establishment of the blast furnaces.

Exercise 5. Give a written Russian translation of the following passages.

1. The chemical process for extracting a metal from its ore is called smelting. Iron ore is heated with limestone and coke, which is mostly made up of carbon. Coke and limestone remove the unwanted parts of the iron ore to leave almost pure iron, which still contains some carbon. Steel is made by removing more carbon and adding other metals.

2. Gold is much softer than copper, so it is easier to hammer into shape. It is not very strong. A gold knife might look very fine but would not have been much use for skinning a bear, so from early times gold became the metal for ornaments. Copper is much harder; it would have been much more difficult for early man to shape; but the finished article was more durable.

3. These metal-workers were masters of the ancient craft of gold-beating, a process by which gold is beaten between skins until it is reduced to a very thin sheet. The Egyptians could produce sheets only one five-thousandth of an inch thick, and used them for gilding wooden statues and for other decorative purposes.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Plurals

Singular Plural

1) advice, information, knowledge, 1) all garmets and instruments,

news, baggage, luggage, furniture, consisting of two parts:

rubbish, (air)craft, quid , mumps trousers, glasses,binoculars

This news is very important. His trousers look nice.

2) names of sciences: mathematics, 2) other words in -ics

acoustics, physics, linguistics hysterics, mathematics (as a

Acoustics is a branch of physics. school subject)

3)Expressions of quantity and sums Mathematics are not my best

of money are usually regarded as subject.

units and take a singular verb: 3)wages, police, clothes, cattle

25 dollars is much money for him. The police are after him.

4) premises, quaters

(accomodation)

These premises are not bad.

Words which have Greek or Latin forms make their plurals according to the rules of these languages:

datum - data; phenomenon - phenomena; axis - axes

Now there is a tendency with common Greek or Latin words to make the plural according to the rules of the English language:

dogma - dogmas; formula - formulas

But formulae is used in scientific English.

Exercise 1. Choose the correct form of the verb.

1. Athletics . . . his hobby. (to be) 2. The news . . . awaiting him at home. (to be) 3. Mathematics . . . an exact science. (to be) 4. My luggage . . . of a bag and ranch of philosophy. (to be) 12. Physics . . . never been my best subject. (to have) 13. The new furniture you've just bought . . . very comfortable. (to be) 14. Her glasses . . . been broken. (to have)

Exercise 2. Write the plural for each of the following nouns.

potato, mother-in-law, memorandum, criterion, Frenchman, lady, child, wolf, fish, calf, glass, deer, pyjamas, donkey, torch, box, handkerchief, foot, boot, sheep, mouse, ox, tooth, army, phenomenon.

Exercise 3. Make the verbs agree

1. There (was/were) many people in the room. 2. Mathematics (is/are) not my best subject. 3. Look at my trousers. (They/It) (is/are) dirty. 4. Your scissors (need/needs) sharpening. 5. (This/These) new pair of jeans (is/are) very smart. 6. You (was/were) at their party yesterday.Please,tell us a few words about it. 7. Anyone who (have/has) a head for figures (is/are) welcome to work at this Institute. 8. The full armour and a Damascus sword (complete/completes) his private collection. 9. About two million dollars (has/have) been made at the last auction. 10. Neither of them (know/knows) this rule. 11. Either he or his sister (is/are) coming tomorrow night. 12. More than twenty aircraft (was/were) destroyed in the raid. 13. Mass media (is/are) not very popular nowadays. 14. She is one of the best engineers that (have/has) ever graduated from this faculty. 15. The news of his arrival (have/has) spread very quickly. 16. Dynamics (is/are) a branch of mechanics.

Exercise 3. Read the poem and pay attention to the plurals.

Write these words both in the singular and the plural.

Why English is so hard

We'll begin with a box, and the plural is boxes;

But the plural of ox should be oxen, not oxes,

Then one fowl is goose, but two are called geese;

Yet the plural of moose should never be meese.

You may find a lone mouse or a whole lot of mice.

But the plural of house is houses not hice.

If the plural of man is always called men,

Why shouldn't the plural of pen be called pen?

The cow in the plural may be cows or kine,

But the plural of vow is vows not vine.

And I speak of a foot, and you show me your feet,

But I give you a boot - would a pair be called beet?

If one is a tooth and a whole set are teeth,

Why shouldn't the plural of booth be called beeth?

If the singular is this and the plural is these,

Should the plural of kiss be nicknamed kese?

Then one may be that, and three may be those,

Yet, the plural of hat would never be hose.

We speak of a brother and also of brethren,

But though we say mother, we never say methren.

The masculine pronouns are he, his and him.

But imagine the feminine she, shis and shim!

So our English, I think you'll agree,

Is the trickiest language you ever did see.

Expressing the Present

1. The Present Simple is used to report actions in general, or actions that happen repeatedly.

The earth goes round the sun.

I get up at 7 o'clock every morning.

2. The Present Continuous is used to describe the actions which are happening at the time of speaking.

She is in Britain now, she is studying English.

Where is he? He is playing tennis.

На русский язык Present Continuous переводится глаголом настоящего времени несовершенного вида.

Some verbs are not used in Continuous Tense: want, know, belong, understand, see, love, hate, forget, seem, remember, like, need.

Exercise 4. Translate the sentences into Russian.Comment on the use of tenses.

It is still raining. 2. The woman, who is speaking with my sister, is our neighbour. 3. This man speaks English very well, but it is difficult for me to understand him now because he is speaking so fluently. 4. Where are you hurrying to? - I'm afraid to miss the 3 o'clock train. My friend is coming with it. 5. Light is a form of electromagnetic energy that travels very quickly on different frequencies, or wavelengths. 6. Stop smoking. Usually nobody smokes here. 7. Look! Ann is introducing Mary to John. 8. Gravity keeps the moon on its orbit around the earth.. 9. Where are you going this Sunday? - This Sunday I'm going to my friend's birthday party, but usually at weekends I go to the country. 10. Scientists are still discussing the origin of the universe.

Exercise 5. Put the verb into the Present Indefinite or the Present Continuous.

1. He . . . (to work) on a new book now. 2. What is the weather like? It . . . (to rain) a little. 3. The concert . . . (to start) at 7.30. 4. Tom . . . (to want) to visit him but he . . . (to play) volleyball now. 5. Water . . . (to boil) at 100 degrees Celcius. 6. This machine . . . (not to work). It broke down this morning. 7. That machine . . . (not to work). It broke down a year ago. 8. You can borrow my pen. I . . . (not to need) it now. 9. She is an engineer but she . . . (to sit) with her baby at the moment. 10. This coat . . . (to belong) to me. 11. We usually . . . (to work) in our garden at weekends. 12. I . . . (not to drive) but my father . . . (to teach) me now. 13. I . . . (to want) to go there right now. 14. Listen to him. Do you understand what language he . . . ( to speak)?

Exercise 6. Correct the sentences in which the Present Simple and the

Present Continuous are misused.

1. I am thinking you are wrong. 2. Why didn't you go to the country yesterday? It was raining hard. 3. Are you believing me? 4. Why don't you want to join us? I am finishing the book I must give back tomorrow. 5. The moon is going round the earth. 6. Where is Mother? She is working in the garden. 7. I am usually going to work by bus. 8. Every day I am training at 9. Are you happy? I'm very happy. I am going to get married. 10. She is leaving for Paris tomorrow morning. 11. No one knows that Miss Piper is studying mathematics. 12. At present Doctor Atkinson is working on a very serious paper which he is going to deliver at a symposium in Glasgow next week. 13. He is always explaining simple facts. 14. Miss Piper knows practical mathematics - she can add, substract, multiply and divide.

Exercise 7. Read the dialogue given below, paying attention to expressing

the Present. Make up a dialogue of your own, using the model.

A - Good morning, Sir.

B - Good morning.

A - Is the manager in?

B - Yes, he is, but he is engaged at the moment, I'm afraid. Please, sit down

and wait a minute.

A - OK. But is he really busy? What is he doing? Isn't he expecting me?

B - He is talking to a visitor from Germany just now. They are discussing

a contract.

Text 2

Pre - reading task

1. What do you know about the Vikings?

2. When did they come to Britain?

3. Why were they successful fighters?

4. How did they harden the metal?

5. Describe the process of building up the blades.

The Coming of the Vikings

After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD, there was little progress in the working of metals for many years. Iron-smelting, tin and lead mining, and the general metal-working developed by the Romans in occupied countries almost ceased. What metal-work was still carried on was of poor quality.

Then, about 800 AD, a new power entered northern Europe - the Vikings. These men from the north, Norsemen, were great seafarers and fighters. They owed much of their success to their skill with metal. Their swords were much longer and stronger than those used by the Romans, and with these they won their battles.

In those days it was difficult to make good swords because of the lack of furnaces hot enough to melt iron sufficiently to treat it with carbon and turn it into steel. All that could be done was to heat the iron in charcoal, which is rich in carbon. Some carbon from the charcoal found its way into the metal and hardened it on the surface, like the crust on a loaf.

The swordmakers built up their blades by taking a number of thin strips, which had been hardened on their surfaces, and twisting them together in various patterns. The metal was then reheated and hammered (forged) until it became a solid piece with hardened strips running right through the blade. As well as making blade strong, this method also created an interesting wavy patterns on the metal.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Here are the answers to some questions about the text.

Work out the questions.

1) The Roman Empire fell in 476 AD.

2) The Romans were skilled in iron-making, tin and lead mining, and the general metal- working.

3) No, there was little progress in the working of metals after the fall of the Roman Empire.

4) The Vikings owed much of their military success to their skill with metals.

5) It was difficult for the Vikings to make swords because of the lack of good furnaces.

6) Yes, the Vikings had their own method of making swords.

7) They heated the iron in charcoal.

8) Yes, this method also created an interesting wavy pattern on the metal.

Exercise 2. Read the text again and agree or disagree with the

statements given below.

1. Between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Vikings invasion there was much progress in the working of metals.

2.The Vikings' swords were much longer and stronger than those used by the Romans.

3. In those days men possessed good equipment to melt iron sufficiently.

4. The Vikings could turn iron into steel.

5. The Vikings didn't use reheating and hammering in the process of sword making.

Exercise 3. Look through the text and find the synonyms to the words

given below.

decline; advance; stop; outstanding; construct; expertness; mastery; deficiency; achievement; model.

Exercise 4. Translate the following idioms into Russian. Use them in the

sentences of your own.

a) To have too many irons

in the fire. Заниматься многими делами одновременно.

b) To iron out differences. Сглаживать различия.

c) Strike while the iron is hot Куй железо пока горячо.

d) To rule with an iron hand Править железной рукой

e) Iron will Железная воля

f) Hammer in Втолковывать, вдалбливать

Exercise 5. Arrange the jumbled sentences into the organized text.

1. This was a new method of discovering truth by experiment.

2. One event of his life particularly interested Edison, a great inventor and scientist.

3. One day he invited a number of professors and students to meet him in one of the squares of Pisa where there was a very high tower.

4. It was this method which Edison used throughout his life.

5. Gallileo didn't believe the scientists of the time that a heavy weight dropped from a height more quickly than a light weight.

6. He went to the top of the tower and dropped two iron balls with different weight.

7. They struck the ground at the same time.

8. Thomas Edison loved to tell the story of Galileo, a great Italian scientist of the 17th century.

Oral Practice

Making an appointment. Telephone calls.

Patterns

Questions Replies
1. Could I make an appointment with Mr.Brown?	1. Yes, please. He can see you at 2 o'clock.
2. Could I make an appointment for Tuesday?	2. I'll have to check it with Mr. Brown, I'm afraid.
3. I'd like to speak to Mr.Brown appointment?	3. Sure. Can I fix an appointment while I'm here. Can I make an for you for 2.30?
4. Should I phone before coming?	4. No, it is fixed. Do please call to confirm the meeting.

Telephone Calls

1. Could I speak to Mr.Brown,	1. Just a minute, please.
2. Could you put me to through Mr.Brown, please?	2. Who is speaking/calling,please?
3. Could I have extension 2345, please?	3.Hold the line, please. I'm putting you through now.
4. Could I leave a message for Mr.Brown?	4. Sure/Yes, of course/certainly.
5. Could you ask Mr.Brown to call me back?	5. I'm afraid he is not available until Sunday.
6. Can I make a collect call? The number is . .	6. Hold on, please. Oh, I'm afraid the line is engaged/busy.
7. Well, thanks for the information.	7. You are welcome. Thanks for calling.

Exercise 1. Learn the dialogues by heart and make up similar dialogues

of your own using the patterns.

1.Peter: Could I make an appointment with Mr.Brown?

Secretary: Certainly. What day would suit you?

Peter: Monday or Tuesday.

Secretary: Let me see. Oh, Monday is busy, I'm afraid. Will Tuesday

2 o'clock be all right with you?

Peter: Thank you very much.

2.Peter: May I speak to Susan, please?

Susan: Speaking.

Peter: This is Peter O'Brien. Can I see you tomorrow? I'd like to invite you

to the theatre.

Susan: Thank you. I'd love to go there with you.

Peter: So, see you at 6 sharp at the entrance.

Susan: Fixed, then. I'm looking forward to meeting you.

3.Ben: Is that Mr. Hardy's office?

Secretary: Yes.

Ben: My name is Ben Green. I've got an appointment with Mr.Holt

for tonight but something urgent has turned up. Could you put

our meeting off till Wednesday night?

Secretary: Hold the line, please. I'll pass the information on to him . . .

Oh, yes, Mr.Holt can meet you on Wednesday same time.

Exercise 2. You have an appointment with Mr.Brown, so:

- introduce yourself

- explain that you have an appointment with him

- explain the purpose of your visit

- accept or decline the offers (for example, you have another appointment)

- explain that you need to confirm your return flight for tomorrow evening

Exercise 3. What would you say if somebody is phoning your brother but:

1. he is not in

2. he is in the next room

3. he is coming only tomorrow

4. he cannot answer the call immediately because he is busy

Exercise 4. Practise making arrangements.

You phone someone	Someone phones you
a) You want to make an appointment with a dentist. You are free on Monday, Tuesday and Thursday. Phone the dentst's secretary and arrange time.	a) You are the dentist's secretary. The dentist is only free on Monday, and Friday. His working hours are 9.30-12.30.
b)You want to invite your friend to a party on Saturday. It begins at 8.00. Phone and arrange when and where to meet.	b)Your friend invites you to a party. You'd love to go.Arrange to meet some-where in town. At what time?
c) You need a passport photograph. You are free every afternoon this week. Phone and make an appointment.	c) You are a photographer.You are free on Wednesday and Friday this week, between 11.00 and 13.00.

Unit 4

Text 1

Iron - Smelting without Charcoal

The First Blast Furnaces

So far, no furnace in Europe had been hot enough to melt iron to a liquid state. All that could be produced was a `spongy' mass from which impurities had to be hammered out. However, design of furnaces improved over the centuries, and about the year 1400 very efficient blast furnaces were introduced by the Germans. They had found that a blast of air from water-powered bellows increased the temperature, though the iron still did not liquify. It became soft and spongy, worked its way down through the burning charcoal, and collected at the bottom of the furnace.

Furnaces were usually built about ten or fifteen feet high, but to economise on fuel a new one was built thirty feet high. Although the internal temperature in this was no higher, the iron arrived at the bottom in a completely liquid state. Not only could the metal be run off into moulds, but many of the impurities (which had previously to be hammered out) separated automatically from the melted iron. The reason for this tremendous stride in metallurgy was simple: the height of the furnace. The soft `sponge' iron took so long to seep down through the charcoal that it absorbed a great deal of carbon. It became carburised, and as the melting point of carburised iron is 350^o C less than `sponge' iron, it became liquid.

By about the year 1600, iron production in Britain was beginning to suffer from lack of fuel. For 3,000 years all iron-smelting, both here and abroad, had been done with charcoal. Charcoal is partly-burned wood. In Britain, timber was running short and it was impossible for the iron-makers to equal the output of a country such as Sweden, where timber was abundant.

Fortunately for Britain a Quaker, Abraham Darby, found a way to do without charcoal altogether. In his iron factory at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, he made many experiments using coke, and finally succeeded. There were technical difficulties to overcome, and at first Darby kept the process secret for the benefit of his family. Later his methods were adopted throughout Europe. No longer dependant on dwindling forests, Britain remained her position as a leading iron producer.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

liquid /'likwid/; spongy /'sponji/; design /di'zain/; liquify /likwi'fai/; automatically /o:t?`mжtik?li/; metallurgy /'metl?:ji/; carburised /'ka:bjuraizd/; technical /'teknik?l/; throughout / ? ru'aut/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word -

combinations given below.

примеси; доменная печь; поток воздуха; жидкое состояние; высотой в десять футов; экономить на топливе; температура внутри печи; большой прогресс в металлургии; поглощать углерод; недостаток топлива; кокс; преуспеть в ч-л; проводить опыты; преодолевать трудности; по всей Европе; воостановить свои позиции.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents.

1. to melt iron to a liquid state 1.удалить примеси

2. to hammer out impurities 2. отделять от

3. efficient blast furnaces 3. точка плавления

4. at the bottom of the furnace 4. сравнять результаты

5. to separate from 5. расплавить железо до жидкого

состояния

6. melting point 6. быть в изобилии

7. to equal the output 7. на благо. ради

8. to be abundant 8. на дне печи

9. for the benefit of 9. высокопроизводительные

доменные печи

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions:

1. When did the first blast furnaces appear? 2. What is the work of a blast furnace based on? 3. Does the productivity of blast furnaces depend on their height? 4. Why did iron production in Britain begin to suffer? 5. What did Abraham Darby introduce into the process of iron-making?

Exercise 4. Complete the following statements by choosing the answer

which you think fits best. Are the other answers unsuitable?

Why?

1. No furnace in Europe could melt iron to a liquid state because:

a) there were too many impurities in it.

b) they were not hot enough.

c) water-powered bellows didn't work properly.

2. The reason for the tremendous stride in metallurgy was:

a) the height of the furnace.

b) the shape of the furnace.

c) the internal temperature of the furnace.

3. Iron production in Britain began to suffer from:

a) the exhaustion of the deposits of iron ore.

b) political situation.

c)lack of fuel.

4. Abraham Darby succeeded in his experiments to do without charcoal

because:

a) he used coke.

b) he hammered out the impurities.

c) he mixed iron with carbon.

Exercise 5. Give a written Russian translation of the following passage.

1. In addition the rapid developments in the use of iron and steel during the Industrial Age brought with them greatly increased demand for other metals, particularly copper, tin and lead. Moreover, the demand was not only for greater tonnages but also for a far greater variety of metals. Many of these metals were one hundred years ago little known names in the periodic table, but have now come into prominence and have become marketable commodities. It is accordingly not surprising that there have been more notable advances in metallurgy during the century under review than in the whole history of this ancient art.

2. Limestone is included in the furnace because it mixes and combines with sand, clay and stones in the ore. They form a waste material, called slag, which floats on top of the molten metal.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Indefinite and Distributive Adjectives and Pronouns

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

some no any

somebody(one) nobody (none) anybody(one)

something nothing anything

somewhere nowhere anywhere

Any and its compounds can be used in negative sentences, if the predicate is negative or with hardly, barely, scarcely.

I don't want to buy anything here.

I have hardly any time.

Any and its compounds can be used in affirmative sentences in the meaning of `practically every'.

You may take any book you like.

Some is used in questions, when the answer `yes' is expected.

May I take some coffee?

Everyone/ everybody/ everything + singular verb

Everyone wants to go there. Everything is ready.

Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks with some, any, no, every and their compounds

1. Does . . . know where he lives? 2. . . . wants to speak to you on the phone. 3. He is a real . . ., a man without wealth or . . . interests. 4. You may borrow . . . money from me. 5. I have hardly . . . books which may be of interest to you. 6. . . . dictionary will give you the meaning of these words. 7. Have you ever heard . . . of his lectures? 8. Would . . . like a drink? 9. Do you want . . . from the chemist? 10. I don't want to go . . . this summer. 11. I am sure that . . . there lives a person who will fall in love with you.

Exercise 2. Translate into Russian. Explain the use of indefinite adjectives

and pronouns.

1. Dr. Greystone is not interested in anything outside his field. He is an atomic physicist and he does not want to be anything else. 2. Professor Mellowson is walking in Kentington Gardens. There are many people here. Some are lying on the grass and others are walking. But Professor does not notice anything or anybody. 3. What book shall I bring you? - Any you like. 4. We looked for the man, but there was nobody around. 5. He comes here every day. You can find him in any time between 2 and 4. 6. I think he has been everywhere. There is nothing to surprise him. 7. The symposium will be devoted to some problems of relationship between science and art. 8. Miss White has no taste at all. Her room is simply awful. 9. I'm very thirsty. Is there any juice in the house? - No, there isn't any, I'm afraid, but there is some mineral water. 10. I'm very hungry, but I don't want to go anywhere to eat out tonight. - Then there is some bread and butter in the fridge.

Exercise 3. Choose the appropriate indefinite pronoun or adverb out of those given in parenthesis. Explain your choice. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1.What book shall I bring. - (Some, any) you like. 2. If you have (something, anything) against me, speak out. 3. Why are (some, no) people so boring? 4. I don't think I'll go (anywhere, nowhere) this summer. 5. I never put (no, any) sugar in my tea. 6. Where there (no, some) objections? 7. (Sombody, nobody) tells me (nothing, anything). Could you tell me (something, everything)? 8. What books do you need? - (Any, no) you can give to me. 9. He took out (some, no) strange instrument from his bag. 10. I think he knows (everything, something). He is a real Mr. know-all. 11. We have heard (any, some) news that might interest you.

Text 2

Pre - reading task

1. What do you already know about the Crusades?

2. Find the key words in each paragraph and make up a summary of the text.

3. Find the answers to the following questions:

a) Why did the English warriors go to Jerusalem?

b) What does the legend say?

c) What can you say about the level of metallurgical development in the

East at the time of the Crusades?

The Crusades

In 1066 the Norman conquest of Britain brought England into closer relationship with France and other European countries. When the Crusades started, English warriors joined their continental brethren in trying to gain control of Jerusalem.

The fall of Rome did not affect life in eastern countries in quite the same way that it had done in Europe. The crusaders, coming from rough, comfortless homes - even those of them who lived in castles - were astonished by the luxury and elegance of the eastern countries. They longed to imitate the splendid architecture they saw, and they found that the eastern metal-workers were superior to their own. The Muslims did not have any additional new metals, but possessed greater technical skill in the arts of forging, casting and working the known ones.

There is a legend which tells of a meeting in the desert between Richard the Lion Heart and Saladin, the Muslim leader. Comparing weapons, Richard smashed through an iron bar with his mighty two-handed sword. In reply, Saladin flicked a silk scarf into the air and sliced it in half with his razor-sharp scimitar. Though not a true story, this legend makes a very apt comment on the metallurgical superiority of the Muslims' swordsmiths. To retain such a sharp edge, Saladin's blade must have been made of far superior metal.

The Muslims had a special method of making sword-blades which they had learned from India, hundreds of years before the Crusades. Blades made by this technique were known as Damascene. As well as being very strong, they had beautiful surfaces which shimmered like watered silk.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Here are the answers to some questions about the text.

Work out the questions.

1. The fall of Rome did not affect life in eastern countries.

2. The Norman conquest of Britain took place in 1066.

3. The main aim of English warriors was to gain control of Jerusalem.

4. The Muslims were skilled in the arts of forging and casting.

5. The legend comments on the metallurgical superiority of the Muslims' swordmakers.

Exercise 2. Read the text carefully and agree or disagree with the

statements given below.

1. When the Crusades started, English warriors didn't want to join them

2. The Crusaders were astonished by the luxury and elegance of the eastern countries.

3. The Muslims knew some additional new metals.

4. Richard smashed through an iron bar with his mighty two-handed sword.

5. Saladin's blade was made of a superior material.

6. The Muslims invented their special method of making sword blades.

Exercise 3. Look through the text and find words or phrases which mean

the same as:

win; crave; hear of; be more experienced; way; produce;

be surprised; throw; land; glitter; crude; proficiency.

Exercise 4. Translate the following idioms into Russian. Use them

in the sentences of your own.

1. To cross swords with someone. = To start fighting, arguing.

2. Rough and ready. = not finished in detail; rough but ready for use now

3. A rough guess. = an approximate calculation

4. To take the rough with the smooth. = to endure smth without complaint

5. To make headway. = to make progress

6. To make up for lost time. = to work harder after loosing time

7.To make much ado about nothing. = to make much noise about smth unimportant.

8.He'll throw a fit. = he'll react very angrily

9.To make bricks without straw = to try to do smth impossible

Exercise 5. Arrange the jumbled sentences into the organized text.

1. The Crusaders led by Richard the Lion Heart wore the heavy armour.

2. The knights in Richard's army wore chain mail.

3. On top of the hood of chain mail the crusader wore an iron helm.

4. It helped them in hand-to-hand fighting against the lighty armed Saracens.

5. Their legs were protected by long stockings made of the same kind of iron links.

6. In all this armour the crusaders fought under the burning sun of Syria.

7. But it was uncomfortable to wear in the heat of the Palestine desert.

Oral Practice

Giving and Rejecting Advice. Visiting a Doctor.

Patterns

Giving advice	Rejecting advice
1. Why don't you do it?	I'm afraid I can't do that, I have no time.
2. What about doing it?	I don't think it's a good idea.No, that's impossible.
	Accepting advice What a good idea! That's a good idea! Thanks, I'll do it. Yes, all right.

Here are some symptoms that people complain of when they go to see a doctor:

I've got a temperature I'm running a high temperature

I've got a sore throat I don't feel(am not feeling) very well

I'm constipated I keep feeling dizzy

I feel sick I've got a diarrhoea

My arm hurts I've got a pain in my (leg, arm, chest ..)

I've got a stomach (back, tooth, ear, head) ache

(there are only 5 aches, the rest are pains!)

This is what the doctor might tell you to do:

Keep warm Go straight to bed

Stay in bed for a couple of days Take one/two tablets after your meals

Don't eat any rich food Take this prescription to the chemist

Take the medicine before you go to bed

Exercise 1. Learn the dialogue by heart and make up a dialogue of

your own using the patterns.

Receptionist: Good morning. What can I do for you?

Paula: Good morning. I'd like an appointment with the dentist, please.

Receptionist: Yes, certainly. What's the matter? Is it urgent?

Paula: I'm afraid it is. I've got a terrible toothache. I've been having

it for two days. It's very nasty. And I had my regular check up

only three weeks ago.

Receptionist: Well, Dr.Brown can see you today at 10.30. Is that OK?

Paula: Yes, that's fine.

Receptionist: What's your name and address?

Exercise 2. Pair work

1. You are a doctor. Your partner is a patient who is ill. Find out the information you need to complete the form and tell your partner what to do using the patterns.

Medical Record Card

name of patient __________________________________

date of visit __________________________________

symptoms __________________________________

recommended treatment __________________________

________________________________________________

Pretend that you are ill. Decide what symptoms you have and how long you have had them. Your partner is a doctor. Answer his questions and make sure you understand what you have to do.

3. You meet your friend who doesn't look well. Ask him/her what the matter is and give advice using the patterns.

4. Talk to your partner about his/her health and tell him/her about yours.

Exercise 3. In pairs guess the meanings of these common idioms and

discuss the situations when you can use them.

1. He wouldn't hurt a fly.

2. People should not break the laws: ill-gotten, ill-spent.

3. When he returned from the hospital he was `skin and bones'.

4. The moment he saw her after all those twenty years he understood that the heart once truly loved never forgets. Chapter 2

The Age of Steel

Unit 1

Text 1

The Vast Growth of the Iron and Steel Industry

When James Watt invented the steam engine in the latter part of the 18th century, the whole industrial scene changed. Steam power made possible the `Industrial Revolution' in Britain. Vast quantities of metal were needed for the railways pioneered by the Stevensons, and the huge iron ships and bridges of Brunel. In Sheffield, the centre of the iron and steel industry, the output of metals multiplied fifty times in thirty-five years.

During this expansion, improved tools were invented for use in the factories and many steam-powered tools were invented and developed. One of the most famous of these tools was the steam-hammer designed by James Nasmyth about 1830. It was used to forge the huge shafts and plates required in the ships of the time, and could be accurately controlled to give heavy blows or light taps. In fact, to impress visitors to the foundry an egg was placed on the anvil and cracked by the hammer without breaking the egg shell. Other machine-tools invented and developed included the rolling-mill which could roll metal, either hot or cold, into thin sheets.

A British metallurgist Henry Cort took out a patent in 1783 for a mill to roll iron sheets and bars. In 1784 he improved the puddling process by hollowing out the bottom of the reverberatory furnace so as to contain the molten metal in this puddle. Railway lines could be made in this way, the hole in the press being suitably shaped to the section of the railway-line. Puddling played a great role in the development of iron and steel industry in Britain during the Industrial Revolution.

These tremendous advances in engineering were matched by improvements in the quality of metals, and the metallurgists were as active and successful as the engineers. Between 1750 and 1850 no less than thirty-five more metals were discovered. Many of these were unimportant but three were outstanding, nickel, cobalt, and manganese, the latter to play a vital part in steel production.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

engine /'enjin/; industrial /in'd/\ stri?l/; industry /'ind /\ stri/; revolution / rev?`lu: ? n/; multiplied /'m/\ ltiplaid/; designed /di'zaind/; forge /fo:j/; shaft /?a:ft/; required /ri'kwai?d/; accurately /'ж kjur?tli/; anvil /'ж nvil/; machine /m?`?i:n/; extrusion /'eks'tru: ? n/; tremendous /tri'mend?s/; engineering /enji'ni?ri?/; reverberatory /ri'v?: b?r?t?ri/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-

combinations. Use them in the sentences of your own.

изобрести паровой двигатель; Промышленная революция; увеличиться в пятьдесят раз; модернизированные орудия труда; изобретать; паровой молот; ось (шпиндель); литейный цех; прокатный стан; пудлиргование; выдавливать углубление (полость); отражательная печь.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents.

1. the latter part of the century 1. производство стали

2. vast quantities of smth 2. наковальня

3. output of metals 3. прогресс в технике

4. to impress visitors 4. качество металлов

5. anvil 5. играть важнейшую роль в ч-л

6. railway lines 6. последняя часть/конец века

7. advances in engineering 7. производство металлов

8. the quality of metals 8. железнодорожные рельсы

9. to play a vital part 9. огромное количество ч-л

10. steel production 10. производить большое впечатление

на посетителей

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions

1. When did James Watt invent the steam engine? 2. What was the result of his invention? 3. Where was steam-hammer first used? 4. Who invented the rolling-mill? 5. What is the purpose of the rolling mill? 6. What is the puddling process used for? 7. Were any new metals discovered between 1750 and 1850?

Exercise 4. Choose the word or phrase which best completes each

sentence.

1. . . . iron is a relatively soft silvery metal.

a) clean b) mixed c) pure

2. All but 20 of the over 100 elements identified to date are . . .

a) metals b) gases c) non-metals

3. Only 7 metals are common in the earth's . . .

a) surface b) crust c) underground

4. Copper was the first metal . . . by man.

a)invented b) opened c) discovered

5. The steam-hammer was . . . by James Nasmyth.

a) elaborated b) designed c) worked out

6. Gold, silver and copper have always been . . . for their qualities.

a)praised b) respected c) valued

Exercise 5. Give a written translation of the following passages.

1. Thomas, Sidney Gitchrist (1850 - 1885), a British metallurgist. Educated at Dulwich college. Served as a clerk at the Court of London and attended evening lectures at the Royal Mining School. While looking for ways and means of making steel from high-phosphorus pig iron in the Bessemer converter, he devised (with assistance from his cousin Peter Gilchrist) in 1878 what later became known as the Thomas-Gilchrist process in England or the Thomas process on the continent. Took out several patents covering the process between 1877 and 1882. Predicted that the high-phosphorus slag from his process could be used as a soil conditioner and stimulant to plant growth.

2. Obuhov, Pavel Matveyevich (1820 - 1869), a Russian metallurgist. Graduated from the St.Petersburg Corps of Mining Engineers with honours in 1843. Was sent to work in the Urals. Was appointed Manager of the Zlatoust Arms Factory in 1854, where he completed his improvements of the crucible process. Was granted in 1857 the privilege of using his process for the large-scale production of high-quality cast steel. Designed in the late 1850s a factory to make steel field guns, which went into operation at the Prince Mihail Factory in 1860. This started the use of cast steel for gun barrels and was a turning point for Russian artillery. Obuhov's steel field gun which had fired over 4000 rounds without damage was awarded a gold medal at the World Exhibition in London in 1862. Elected a corresponding member of the Artillery Committee and appointed Chief of the Zlatoust Mining District in 1861. Headed the construction of a major steel works in St. Petersburg in 1863, later named after him.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Present Perfect And Perfect Continuous

The Present Perfect Tense is used when there is a connection with the present.

I have done my homework, so I can go for a walk now.

The Present Perfect Tense is used to give new information or to announce a recent happening.

I've met him. He is a very nice person.

The Present Perfect Tense is used with just, ever, never, yet, lately, already, of late, for ages, recently, this week/year.

The Present Perfect Tense always tells us about the present. The Past Simple tells us about the past.

He saw wolves in the forest. (but there are no wolves now,

or he is not alive)

He has seen wolves in the forest (they are still there, so the

forest is dangerous)

На русский язык Present Perfect переводится глаголом прошедшего времени совершенного вида.

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense = to have been + Present Participle

This tense is used for an action which began in the past and is still continuing (usually with for and since):

I've been waiting for an hour and he hasn't come yet.

Я жду уже целый час, а он еще не пришел.

На русский язык Perfect Continuous переводится глаголом настоящего времени несовершенного вида.

Exercise 1. Translate into Russian. Comment on the use of Tenses.

Stainless steels have successfully made their way into engineering applications. 2.The working of metal in some form has engaged man's efforts for thousands of years. 3. The electrical power industry has traditionally faced corrosion problems. 4. Although many scientists studied motion, it was the great Sir Isaak Newton who formulated the theories of motion. 5. Studies have also shown hardness of stainless steels. 6. Chemistry students put some water into a tube, added some sodium hydroxide and dissolved it. 7. They have recently examined several modern molding machines. 8. The scientists have been working on this problem since 1998. 9. Have you finished your report on resource-saving in non-ferrous metallurgy? You have been working on it for two weeks. 10. For these reasons traditional moulding has taken an advantage over the new methods. 11. The new tecnique resulted in a wide range of material flexibility. 12. Stainless steels have successfully made their way into engineering applications.

Exercise 2. Put the verb into the correct form (Past Simple or Present

Perfect).

1. I . . . (to see) her recently. She . . . (to change) a lot. 2. John . . . (to move) to a new house three days ago. 3. She . . . (to work) at this office for 10 years. Now she . . . (to decide) to retire. 4. I don't think I . . . (to know) your wife. I . . . (not to meet) her. 5. John . . . (to see) Susan last week but he . . . (not to see) her since. 6. This African boy . . . (never to see) snow. 7. It . . . (to happen) when I was out. 8. She . . . (to take) the envelope, . . . (to open) it and . . . (to take) a small sheet of paper out. 9. I . . . (not to see) him of late. 10. When you . . . (to see) Mr.Brown? 11. You are late for the classes again. You . . . (to be) already late once this week. 12. Jill . . . (not to write) to me for nearly a month. 13. It . . . (to be) cold in winter in Moscow as a rule? - Yes, generally it . . . (to be), but this winter it . . . (to be) very warm. 14. Where is Peter? - He . . . (to go) to the library. 15. You . . . (to read) anything by Mark Twain? Which of his novels you . . . (to read) when a child? 16. I . . . (to be) recently to this picture gallery. There . . . (to be) a very interesting exhibition on. 17. Tom . . . (to lose) his key and can't open the door. He . . . (to lose) his key yesterday. 18. I ( to phone) him an hour ago, but he (to be) at home . 19. You (to meet) Peter yet, but I am sure you will like him. 20. I (to start) learning English at school and then (to go on) studying it at the Institute.

Exercise 3. Replace the infinitives by the Past Indefinite, the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect Continuous:

1. At last you (to open) the door. I (to ring) for an hour at least, I think. 2. Here you are at last. I (to wait) for you for ten minutes. 3. The workers (to work) hard since Tuesday. 4. The scientists (to carry out) a lot of experiments before they (to get) positive results. 5. It (not to rain) for a long time. 6. He (to work) at this project for a long time and (not to finish) it yet. 7. How long you (to know) her? I (to know) her for three years. 8. Last night my friends and I (to decide) to stay in town for the summer. 9. They (to discover) diamonds in South Africa in the 19^th century. 10. The concept of the atom (not to exist) before 1804.

Exercise 4. Learn the following dialogues by heart and make up a dialogue of your own using the model

1.A. Have you ever been to the Swiss Alps?

B. Yes, I have. I went there last winter.

A. And I've never been there. I'd like to go there next year. Did you

ski much when you were there?

B. No, I didn't. I can't ski. I've never skied in my life.

A. I can. I learnt to ski in Canada three years ago.

2.A. Have you heard the latest news?

B. What latest news?

A. John has got married at last.

B. Really? And whom did he marry?

A. Ann Simmons.

B. That girl? I've never liked her, you know.

A. Yes, but he loves her a lot, and it's the most important thing.

Text 2

Pre - reading task

1. What do you know about the geography of Great Britain?

2. What do you know about the climate of Great Britain?

3. What do you know about its political structure?

4. Look through the text and say what facts about this country are new for

you.

A Tight Little Island

Tight Little Island, the title of a film about Britain, best describes the physical and cultural characteristics that condition British politics. The smallness of the island, the uniformity of its climate, and the relative concentration of its population in a small portion of the island - England - provide a distinctive setting.

For Americans, the smallness of Britain is quite striking. The continental United States has a territory of more than 3 million square miles. Britain has only 94.216, less than the state of Oregon. Even more startling, England, with 50,335 square miles of land, is home for more than four-fifth of the entire population. The vast majority of the British population lives in a small area almost exactly the size of the state of New York. More than 46 million persons live in the southeastern portion of Britain; about 12 million of these live in the capital city of London.

The very `tightness' of the British Isles is important to their politics because now, historically, the country has benefited from easy communications. These good communications were important in facilitating economic and social development during the past two centuries. Regional differences within England have traditionally been slight compared with differences within the United States. The differences between England and Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland are more pronounced, but they are not dramatic and involve only about 20 percent of the total population. Probably the best illustration of the `tightness' of Britain is the `awayday' trips offered by British Rail, the state-owned railroad. For a small fare a person can go to even the most remote seaside resort or major city and return the same day.

May be the tightness of the country is the reason for the principal trait of British national character - keeping himself to himself. Britain is a country of reserved and conservative people who like to observe their customs and traditions even if they are completely outdated now.

Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. A monarch is the official head of the state, he opens Parliament, completes the process of passing an act by giving the Royal Assent. Parliament which consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons is the supreme legislative body. The supreme executive body is the Government headed by the Prime Minister. Ministers of the Government represent the political party which has taken office. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party in power.

Any M.P. may introduce a bill to the Parliament. Every bill has three readings at the House of Commons, then it is passed to the House of Lords. If it is approved by the House of Lords, it will go to the Monarch for signature.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Answer the questions.

1. Why do the words `tight little island' best describe Great Britain? 2. Does the geographical position of Great Britain predetermine the national character? 3. What is constitutional monarchy? 4. What is the role of members of Parliament?

Exercise 2. From the choices given choose one word or phrase which could be

substituted for the underlined word or phrase without changing its

meaning.

1. For Americans the smallness of Britain is quite striking.

a. funny b. picturesque c. fascinating

2. The differences between England and Scotland are rather pronounced.

a. deep b. unimportant c. respected

3. They have so many differences that they can hardly come to any agreement.

a. variations b. contradictions c. similarities

4. The British like to keep themselves to themselves.

a. to step back b. to speak much c. to keep aloof

5. She is very reserved. One can hardly hear any word from her.

a. cold b. uncommunicative c. friendly

6. Her clothes are completely outdated. She looks rather funny in that dress.

a. unfashionable b. up-to-date c. modern

7. He took office three years ago. I think that in a year he may be re-elected.

a. took for granted b.came to power c. ran for office

8. The initial step is often the most difficult.

a. quickest b. last c. first

Exercise 3. With the help of additional material make up a report about Great Britain.

Oral Practice

Asking for things. Shopping

Questions Replies

1. What would you like? 1. I'd like a loaf of bread, please.

2. Could you give me a dozen eggs, 2. Certainly, here you are.

please?

3. Would you show me that chop, please? 3. Sure.

4. Can I help you? 4. Yes, I'd like some cheese, please.

5. May I borrow your lighter? 5. Yes, please.

6. Do you sell cigarettes here? 6. I'm sorry we don't have them here

7. What is the price of it?/ 7. It is 2 pounds 99p.

How much is it?

Exercise 1. Match the shops with the things you can buy there.

Use the list.

Post office milk and cheese sugar

Florist newspapers stamps

Bakery bread and cakes medicine

Boots (Chemist's) facial creme flour

Dairy tea and coffee beef

Newsagent fruits and vegetables candies

Grocery apples and pears eggs

Greengrocery oatmeal cereals

Supermarket sweets handcream

sleeping pills perfume

fashion magazines bread

Exercise 2. Learn the dialogues by heart and make up similar dialogues of your own.

Peter: Excuse me please, could you help me?

Shop-assistant: Yes, of course. What can I do for you?

Peter: Could I have a pint of milk and a pound of that cheese?

Shop assistant: You mean Stilton?

Peter: Yes, I like this cheese. It is very special.

II.

Shop assistant: Good morning. Can I help you?

Susan: Oh, yes. I'd like to buy some beef.

Shop assistant: Yes, how much would you like?

Susan: Two pounds.

Shop assistant: Anything else?

Susan: Yes, have you got garlic dressing?

Shop assistant: I'm sorry, we don't have any dressings. Go to the grocery

in Crover Street.

Susan: How much is the beef, please?

Shop assistant: It is 3 pounds 45 p.

Exercise 3. Write your shopping list. Go round the class and try to buy

the items from other students.

Exercise 4. Match the two halves of each proverb correctly. Find the Russian equivalents for these proverbs. What situations will you use them in?

Half a loaf is … and eat it.

One man's meat is another man's… in the eating.

Don't put all your eggs… poison.

You can't have your cake… in the eating

The proof of the pudding… in one basket.

Unit 2

Text 1

More Progress in Steel Production

Iron coming from a blast furnace is called pig-iron, and still contains many impurities which have to be removed before it can be converted into steel. During the Industrial Revolution the demand for steel was so great that better and quicker methods of producing it became necessary. A big step forward was made with the invention of the `Bessemer Converter'.

Henry Bessemer (1813 - 1898) was a British civil engineer and inventor. He was elected to the London Royal Society in 1879. During his life-time he patented over a hundred inventions in various fields of technology.

Henry Bessemer's idea was that the impurities would be burned away if air was blown through molten pig-iron.

An experimental vessel to contain 7 cwts of molten pig-iron was set up in Bessemer's factory. Air pipes led into the bottom of the vessel, and when the air was turned on, huge flames and showers of sparks shot out of the mouth of the converter, followed by spurts of molten metal and slag. Bessemer and his workers could only retreat and hope for the best. They could not turn off the air because the air-valve had been placed too near to the converter. However, after ten minutes the eruption subsided and it was found that the iron was free of impurities.

The new process was widely adopted, and converters were built which could purify several tons of pig-iron in half-an-hour - an enormous improvement on previous methods. The Bessemer `blow', with flames shooting high into the air, is one of the most dramatic sights in steel manufacture.

Other methods followed, the Siemens `open hearth' furnaces were slower than the Bessemer converter but gave better control. “Electric arc' furnaces were introduced later.

Two metals, manganese and chromium, discovered in 1774, were to play an important role in steel manufacture. Small quantities of manganese in steel adds greatly to its strength. Chromium is used in the manufacture of stainless steel.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

forward /'fo:w?d/; engineer / enji'ni?/; royal /'roj?l/; society /s?`sai?ti/;

patent /'peit?nt/; technology /tek'nol?ji/; experimental /eks peri'ment? l/; spurt /sp? :t/; subside / s? b'said/; manganese / m?ng?`ni:z/; chromium /'kroumj? m/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word- combinations. Use them in the sentences of your own.

чугун (штыковой чугун); содержать примеси; удалять примеси; превращать в сталь; потребность в стали; инженер-строитель; выжечь; запантетовать; шлак; вантуз; модернизация ранее существующих методов; марганец; хром; увеличивать прочность; играть важную роль в производстве стали.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given below

with their Russian equivalents.

1. to produce steel 1. наиболее величественное зрелище

2. to make a big step forward 2. электродуговая печь

3. air pipes 3. производить сталь

4. in various fields of technology 4. надеяться на лучшее

5. to hope for the best 5. выключать

6. to adopt widely 6. вентиляционные трубы

7. to turn off 7. мартеновская печь

8. the most dramatic sight 8. сделать большой шаг вперед

9. electric arc furnace 9. принять повсеместно

10. open hearth furnace 10. в различныx областях техники

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What differs pig-iron from steel? 2. Who made the revolution in steel industry? 3. What was the main idea of Bessemer's experiment? 4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of open hearth furnaces over Bessemer's converter? 5. How can we increase the strength of steel? 6. What is chromium used for?

Exercise 4. In the text there are some verbs which in combination with

prepositions acquire another meaning :

to set up - устанавливать, утверждать

to turn on - включать

to turn off - выключать

Such combinations are called verbal collocations. Translate the following verbal collocations into Russian and complete the sentences given below using them.

to set smth off; to set in; to set out; to turn someone down;

to turn smth in; to turn someone on; to turn out

1. Let's . . . early tomorrow. It'll take us long to get to Stratford. 2. We've had . . . his proposal. It'll be too expensive to make use of it. 3. His lectures . . . to be very interesting. 4. It's been very cold the last few days. I think the winter . . . already. 5. Rock music really . . . me. 6. Bill is a hard-working student. He . . . two essays every week. 7. He . . . to work on the project several days ago.

Exercise 5. Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence.

Explain your choice.

1. The . . . of steel at Robertsbridge began in 1565.

a) production b) output c) manufacture

2. The importance of Bessemer's discovery was that . . . pig iron was transformed into steel within some thirty minutes.

a) molten b) liquid c) hard

3. In the end of the 18th century . . . of metals improved greatly with the help of new methods.

a) quantity b) quality c) number

4. One of the properties of metals is their specific . . .

a) shining b) luster c) glitter

5. All metals except mercury are . . . substances.

a) hard b) tough c) heavy

6. Converters can . . . several tons of pig iron in a short period of time.

a) clean b) clear c) purify

7. Impurities must be removed before pig iron can be . . . into steel.

a) converted b) transformed c) made

8. Chromium was . . . in 1774.

a) opened b) found c) discovered

Exercise 6. Give a written translation of the following passage.

The technique of making steel had not fallen into oblivion. In Anglo-Saxon literature many references are made to steel and also to `steeling'. Conversion of soft wrought iron into steel by cementation continued to be practised. The technique seems to have been improved by the Danes locally to satisfy the demands of small economic units.

The conquering Normans were greatly impressed by the industrial efficiency they found in England. German skilled workers were accustomed to reside in England because of the high level the Anglo- Saxon had attained in metal - making. For example, knives made in England, were valued much in France during the Middle Ages.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Expressing the Past

Different tenses are used to report past actions. The simple past tense is the most frequently used in scientific writing. It denotes an action, which took part a long time ago and is completed; or to express past habits.

The first man appeared about 1,5 million years ago.

When I was a child, I liked ice-cream.

The Past Continuous Tense is used:

a) to describe an activity in progress at a time in the past.

What were you doing yesterday at 5?

When she entered the room, he was speaking on the phone.

b) to express the future in the past.

He was in a hurry. He was leaving for London at 3 and he

did not want to be late.

The Past Perfect Tense is used to express an action that happened before a definite time in the past.

When I came he had already left for the station.

He had completed his work before the conference.

When using different tenses in the same sentence, different ideas can be expressed.

When we came she made some coffee .(first we came and then she

made the coffee)

When we came she was making some coffee. (she was in the process

of making coffee when we came)

When we came she had made some coffee. (the coffee was ready when

we came)

The Past Perfect Continuous is used when the action began before the time of speaking in the past and continued up to that time:

He was very tired because he had been working for three hours.

Exercise 1. Choose the correct past tense.

Few inventions . . . (to make) such a tremendous difference to everyday life as the internal combustion engine. 2. In 1906 a well-known sportsman Charles Rolls . . . (to go) into partnership with Henry Royce, an engineer. Together they . . . (to build) the Rolls-Royce motor car. 3. I . . . (to work) hard on my project when suddenly I . . . (to hear) a door bell. 4. I couldn't recognize him, he . . . (to change) a lot. 5. Tom . . . (to look) badly yesterday, he . . . (to be) ill for a long time. 6. We needed money so we . . . (to sell) some of our things. 7. Another man-made satellite . . . (to go) just into orbit. 8. When the manufacture of wire, which . . . (to be) the principal object of the new enterprise stopped, production . . . (to be) limited to the manufacture of steel. 9. In spite of the frequent internal wars and Viking invasions which . . . (to earn) the Anglo-Saxon era the name of the Dark Ages in English history. definite economic progress . . . (to take) place in the same period. 10. As a boy Dr.Clark never . . . (to take) any interest in chemistry. 11. He . . . (to be) professor of theoretical physics at Leeds University already when I entered it. 12. The manufacture of steel at Robertsbridge . . . (to begin) early in December 1565. 13. While Mother . . . (to cook) dinner, we . . . (to clean) the living-room. 14. I saw her at the party. She . . . (to wear) a very nice dress, her eyes . . . (to shine). 15. Her eyes were red. I think she . . . (to cry). 16. The Chinese . . . (to invent) gun-powder. 17. When I (to open) the door I (to find) him under the sofa. He (to look for) the keys for a quarter of an hour.

Exercise 2. Translate into Russian. Comment on the use of the tenses.

1. Air pollution has become a major problem in our cities. 2. By 1957 Russia had launched the first sputnik. 3. Abraham Darby died in 1717 and his son, Abraham Darby II, took over his ironworks. 4. By law, all metal found in occupied countries belonged to Rome. 5. We have just briefly enumerated some of the features of iron. 6. By the time of the Great Exhibition of London in 1851, the metallurgical world had already experienced a great advance in technical progress. 7. In recent years there has been a great increase in the application of this method. 8. The last hundred years has seen many innovations in the ancient art of casting. 9. I'm afraid I haven't seen you for a long time. 10. She was waiting for me when I arrived. 11. When I came in they were discussing the advantages of new technology.

Exercise 3. Correct the sentences in which the tenses are misused.

They completed all the preparations by five o'clock.
Please, tell me where you were going to yesterday at 3 o'clock..
I had written to you several days ago. I wanted to know more about the entrance exams.
She had returned from Chicago yesterday.
When she came back she found out that somebody had broken the front door. 6. What did you do at this time yesterday? I was skating .

7. Have you been waiting for me for a long time? Yes, I have waited for you since 2 o'clock.

8. I returned home, shook the water off my raincoat and hang it up.

9. Everything had been ready by 2. So when I came the hostess was having a rest before the guests arrived.

10. He found the place even more beautiful than he expected.

11. We could not start the experiment before we had obtained the necessary data..

12. The use of metals had marked one of the greatest stages in the evolution of man.

13. At the same time they were discussing the results of the experiment.

14. The treatment of steel is now an elaborate science.

15. The use of vacuum methods in metallurgy considerably increased since the mid-fifties.

Text 2

Pre - reading task

1. What do you know about London?

2. Look through the text and say what new facts about London you have

known from it.

London

“The city that has everything” probably sums up London's appeal best of all. It is a tale of two cities: one began as a Roman settlement over 2000 years ago and formed the basis of the City of London - the business heart of the great capital. The other grew up around the abbey which Edward the Confessor founded in 1050: it became the centre of government known as Westminster. Though both these cities have grown and prospered and have lived together for 1000 years they have never made up their minds to become legally married.

The City of London maintains its independence in many ways. For instance, before the Queen may enter the city she must stop at Temple Bar and ask permission of the Lord Mayor of London who, symbolically, surrends the sword of State to her. It is only a formality but it emphasizes the City's status. It is also a good example of British devotion to their traditions.

The Houses of Parliament make a beautiful view across the Thames. They were built between 1840 and 1860 to replace those destroyed in a disastrous fire in 1834. The Victoria Tower is on the left, the Clock Tower (popularly known as Big Ben) is on the right. Westminster Hall, adjacent to the Houses of Parliament, is the only remaining building of the Palace of Westminster. Here King Charles I was sentenced to death.

The City's greatest monument is St.Paul's Cathedral built by Sir Christopher Wren in 17 - 18 centuries. It took him about 35 years to complete his work. The predecessor of the Cathedral was destroyed in the Fire of London (1666). Wren's tomb in the crypt bears the famous inscription:” Reader, if you would seek his monument, look around you.”

The Tower of London does not oficially belong to the City, though it stood there for almost 900 years. The White Tower which is part of the present Tower of London, is the earliest surviving building in the City.

Quite an unexpected feature of London is the number, variety and the beauty of the parks. St.James Park was laid out by John Nash as a front garden for Buckingham Palace, but it is open for everyone. Hyde Park is less of a private garden and more of an open space. It is famous for the Serpentine - a beautiful pond, and Speaker's Corner where anybody can make a speech at weekends. Kensington Gardens adjoins Hyde Park. In both these parks one can find a place where the birds' singing is the only sound to be heard.

Of course the incredible collection of art treasures and historical objects to be found in the city is the main London attraction. Everybody knows about the National Gallery situated in the north of Trafalgar Square which exhibits all schools of European painting from the 13th to the 19th centuries. The National Portrait Gallery adjoins the National Gallery and exhibits the portraits of British monarchs, statesmen, heroes and other well-known people. The British Museum has a priceless collection of art objects from the Orient. The famous British Museum Library has a unique collection of rare books and manuscripts. The Tate Gallery is the National gallery of British art. It was given to the nation by a rich sugar merchant Sir Henry Tate. Another donation to the people of Great Britain was made by Sir Richard Wallace's widow in 1897. It contains a fine display of pottery, carved wooden sculptures, miniatures and paintings.

London was probably best characterized by Dr. Johnson who said, “When a man is tired of London he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford.”

Task 2

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Agree or disagree with the following statements.

London was founded by the Normans about 1000 years ago.
The City is the commercial heart of London and it is an autonomous district.
The Houses of Parliament were burnt down in the fire of 1834.
St.Paul's Cathedral wasn't touched by the Fire of London.
One cannot say that London is a green city.
The National Portrait Gallery is situated in Chelsea and exhibits the portraits of many well-known British people as well as foreigners.

Exercise 2. From the choices given choose one word or phrase which

could be substituted for the underlined word or phrase

without changing its meaning.

1. Moscow grew up around the Kremlin.

a) developed b) enlarged

2. The famous Coventry Cathedral was badly destroyed during World

War II.

a) damaged b) ruined

3. The British Museum has an incredible collection of old books and manuscripts.

a) wonderful b) true

4. The Tretyakov Art Gallery contains a unique collection of Russian painting.

a)comprises b) constitutes

5. The variety of museums make London a real attraction for tourists.

a) kind b) diversity

6. In our days all parks of London are opened to everybody.

a) recently b) nowadays

7. The space of the Kew Gardens is huge.

a) accomodation b) area

Exercise 3. Using additional material make up a report on some

places of interest of London.

Exercise 4. Arrange the jumbled text into the right order.

Lincoln

1. An important building programme was undertaken shortly after the Norman Conquest (1066). The famous Lincoln Cathedral and the Castle were built in 1068 - 1072. The city still has several fine examples of Norman buildings, including the famous Jew's House in Steep Hill, one of Britain's best known 12th-century houses.

2. Lincoln is a city of great historical interest and importance. Even before the Romans came to Lincoln and set up a military garrison in AD 48 the site of the city was occupied and known as Lindon - hill fort by the pool.

3. During the Middle Ages Lincoln's prosperity was based on the wool trade. The development of Lincoln as an industrial centre began in the mid-nineteenth century. The local products are many and varied and include excavators, cranes and drills, diesel engines for all applications, turbines, boilers and pumping equipment, electronic components, etc.

4. The Romans made Lincoln one of the finest cities in Britain. Their elaborate stone-built sewerage system was unique. After the Romans left, the Anglo-Saxons robbed their buildings, and the development of the city started only with the Viking invasion in the 8the century when Lincoln became an important trading centre.

Exercise 5. Listen to the lecture on London Art Galleries and

answer the questions.

Oral Practice

Asking the way

Patterns

Questions Answers

1. Excuse me, can you tell me the 1. Certainly, . . .

way to . . .?

2. Sorry, can you tell me how 2. Sure, . . .

to get to . . .?

3. Excuse me, can you tell me 3. With pleasure/ Yes, of course.

where . . . is?

4. Sorry, I'm afraid, I've lost 4. - Sorry, I don't know.

my way. Can/Could you - I have no idea, I'm afraid.

help me? I need to get to . . . - I'm a stranger here myself.

Directions

Turn left/right

Go/Walk straight on

Take the first/second/etc. road on the left/right

Take the first/second/etc. turning on the left/right

Turn right/left after the zebra crossing

Go over the bridge

Go past the post office/bank/cinema

Prepositions

above ? near ? ?

between ? ? ? next to ? ?

among ? ? ? opposite |? ? |

in front of ?

Exercise 1. Learn the dialogues by heart, and make up similar

dialogues of your own, using the patterns.

A. - Excuse me, could you help me?

B. - Yes, of course. What is it?

A. - I want to catch a 17 bus and I'm trying to find the bus stop.

B. - Go straight on and turn left after the zebra crossing. The bus

stop is just at the corner.

II.

A. - Sorry, can you tell me how to get to Oxford Street?

B. - Certainly, you'd better walk there because the traffic is very

heavy. Take the first turning on the right. Go past the Centre

Point and turn left. Oxford Street is just over there. It'll take

you about 10 minutes to get there.

III.

A. - Excuse me, can you tell me where the nearest post office is?

B. - I have no idea. I'm afraid. I'm a stranger here myself.

Exercise 2. How would you say what you want in these situations?

1. You are in the country and your car breaks down. You must find a telephone. Someone walks past . . .

2. Sylvia is going to a friend's house. The friend told her to catch a 10 bus, but she doesn't know where the bus stop is. She decides to ask someone.

3. You are a stranger in London and you have lost your way to the British Museum.

Exercise 3. Give directions from A to B in these pictures:

1. 2.

0x08 graphic

B Bank

0x08 graphic

0x08 graphic

A Post Office

0x08 graphic

3. 4.

0x08 graphic

B

0x08 graphic

A Bank Post

0x08 graphic

0x08 graphic

=

0x08 graphic

Pub

0x08 graphic
B

0x08 graphic

0x08 graphic

school

0x08 graphic

river

Unit 3

Text 1

Steel Production in Sheffield

Today, Sheffield is one of the main sources of the world's best steel, the mainspring for the mightiest industries of mankind.

Yet, as a steelmaking centre, Sheffield built its reputation only about a century and a half ago. The location of the industry in the lower valley of the Don owed something at that time to the older established edge tool crafts, based originally on imported steel into an area with fuel and water power available, but the main advantage of South Yorkshire was the abundant supply of coal and access to Baltic transport.

The name of the city has become synonymous with quality, craftsmanship and traditional skills. Skills that have become secrets handed down from father to son, that have created the city's proud boast that the words `Sheffield,England' on any product are a certain guarantee of quality.

The modern steel industry on which the city's fame partly rests, only really began with the invention of the crucible process by Benjamin Huntsman, who settled in Handsworth about 1740. His steel was of unequalled uniformity of quality and its use revolutionised the making of tools.

By 1835 Sheffield was already established as the centre of tool-steel manufacture in Britain. Bessemer's invention of his converter steelmaking, first practised in Sheffield and bringing the era of bulk steels, put Sheffield further ahead. Sheffield chose, however, to develop on the lines of the manufacture of alloy and special steels for special purposes and with distinct characteristics. There are numerous types of steel made but they can mainly be divided into a few wide groups: low and medium carbon steels: high carbon and high quality alloy tool steels; special alloy constructional and die steels; stainless and heat-resisting steels, low steels from which permanent magnets for the electrical industries are made (including alloys which are not true steels but made principally in Sheffield by the same process).

Sheffield, the initiator, is in fact the place where the chief discoveries respecting steel and its wonderful powers and possibilities have been made by means of trial and error. Here in 1859 Robert Forester Mushet, made possible the production of a mild all-purpose steel in large quantities. A further process was also introduced, the Siemens-Martin process. In his open-hearth process heat was saved and intensified by using for the blast hot air from the furnace instead of cold. This enabled manufacturers to use ore with a smaller percentage of carbon and a higher percentage of impurities such as phosphorus, as the blast cleared away the harmful elements more thoroughly. Both of these improvements enormously cheapened the production of the average steels in ordinary use.

The industrial legacies provided by these early steelfounders created a sound basis for development. The Siemens open hearth furnace, the converter process invented by Alexandre Tropenas, the electric arc furnace, the high-frequency induction furnace have taken their places in due course. Low-frequency induction melting has since been introduced into the city and high-frequency induction heating is helping heat-treatment and other processes in the manufacture of Sheffield's steels and steel products.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

source /so:s/; mightiest /'maitiist/; area / ??ri /; synonymous /si'nonim?s/;

crucible /'kru:sibl/; unequalled / /\ n'i:kw? ld/; uniformity / ju:ni'fo:miti/;

revolutionised / rev?`lu:? ?naizd/; percentage /p? `sentij /; phosphorus /'fosf?r?s/; legacy /'leg?si/; frequency /'fri:kw?nsi/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the following words and

word-combinations given below. Use them in the sentences

of your own.

источник; главная движущая сила; местоположение; острый режущий инструмент; преимущество; доступ к; мастерство; легированная сталь; отличительная характеристика; сталь с низким содержанием углерода; строительная сталь; нержавеющая сталь; жаропрочная сталь; сплав; удешевить производство; основатели сталелитейной промышленности; высокочастотный нагрев; низкокачественная плавка; термическая обработка.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given below

with their Russian equivalents.

1. a steelmaking centre 1. тигельная сталь

2. abundant supply 2. необработанная сталь

3. water power 3. одинаково высокое качество

4. crucible steel 4. штамповая сталь

5. uniformity of quality 5. определенная гарантия качества

6. a certain guarantee of quality 6. постоянный магнит

7. bulk steel 7. неограниченный запас

8. die steel 8. путем проб и ошибок

9. permanent magnet 9. мягкая (малоуглеродистая) сталь

10. by means of trial and error 10. водяная энергия

11. mild steel 11. центр сталелитейного производства

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. Why did Sheffield become a steelmaking centre? 2. When did the modern steel industry begin? 3. What types of steel were produced in Sheffield? 4. Which processes of steel-making were first introduced in Sheffield? 5. How can the Siemens-Martin process be described?

Exercise 4. Choose the word or phrase that best completes each

sentence.

1. Such men as Bessemer, Siemens and Mushet were . . . the steel material.

a) improving b) discovering c) introducing

2. Only comparatively small . . . of the steel could be melted at one time in the first crucibles.

a) numbers b) quantities c) amounts

3. Bessemer's converter was the first major . . . after Huntsman's crucible.

a) discovery b) invention c) innovation

4. South Yorkshire used to give the . . . supply of coal.

a) great b) rich c) abundant

5. Bessemer's process helped to burn . . . all the carbon.

a) out b) in c) up

6. South Wales - . . . near the sea was convenient for the importation of Spanish ore.

a) located b) present c) accomodated

7. Almost all important discoveries were made by means of trial and . . .

a) mistakes b) fault c) error

Exercise 5. Word-building: A compound noun is a combination of two or more nouns.

They are frequently used in scientific writing. Here are some

examples of compound words. Find more compound words

in the text. Work out the rule of their formation and use

them in the sentences of your own. Pay attention to their

meaning.

1. silver - серебро; silver-coloured - серебристый;

silversmith - серебряных дел мастер; silver-work - изделие из серебра

2. water - вода; water-cooler - радиатор; water-engine - гидравлическая

машина; waterfall - водопад.

Exercise 6. Change each of these phrases into a compound noun.

reaction of chemicals 5. pressure of gas
pump for fuel 6. density of gas
processor of words 7. compression of air
rain that contains acid 8. pollution of the air

Exercise 7. More about word-building. A knowledge of prefixes and their meanings can help you to enlarge your vocabulary. Once you know what a particular prefix means, you have a clue to the meaning of every word beginning with that prefix. English prefixes come mainly from Old English (Anglo-Saxon), Latin and Ancient Greek.

1. fore- = before, beforehand, front

For example: foreword = preface, introduction (предисловие, вступление)

foremost = standing at the front; most advanced; leading; chief ( передний, передовой, выдающийся)

foresight = power of seeing beforehand what is going to happen (предвидеть, предугадать)

2. out- = beyond; more than; better than

For example: outlast = to last longer than (продолжаться, продержаться дольше, чем…)

outrun = to run faster than (опередить, обогнать)

outlook = prospect for the future (вид; перспектива; мировоззрение)

over- = too, excessively

For example: oversupply = a great supply (поставлять слишком много; снабжать с избытком)

overconfident = too confident of oneself (самоуверенный)

overestimate = to make too high an estimate (rough calculation) of the worth or size of smb, smth (слишком высокая оценка ч-л, к-л)

Translate at sight:

Joe overestimated the capacity of the new equipment. 2. The output of the factory is slowly increasing. 3.Yesterday I mislaid my bag and it took me about an hour to find it.

Harry's bad test overshadowed his good work during the last month. 5.We have a shortage of good engineers but an oversupply of unskilled workers. 6.An overdose of this medicine can be dangerous. 7. Sherlock Holmes managed to outwit the cleverest criminals.

Exercise 8. Give a written translation of the following passage.

THE BLAST FURNACE

Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces. The biggest are 60m (200ft) high, produce 10,000 tonnes of iron a day, and work non-stop for 10 years. The furnace gets its name from the blast of hot air that heats up the raw materials. These are iron ore, limestone, and coke (a form of carbon). As carbon is more reactive that iron, it grabs the oxygen from the iron ore, leaving iron metal behind.

Limestone is included in the furnace because it mizes and combines with sand, clay, and stones in the ore. They form a waste material, called slag, which floats on top of the molten metal.

The chemical reactions begin when hot air is blasted into the furnace. As the coke burns, the carbon in it gets enough energy to react with oxygen from the air to form first carbon dioxide and then carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide takes oxygen atoms from the iron oxide to leave carbon dioxide and iron metal. Temperature inside the furnace reaches 1,900^oC, melting the iron which sinks to the bottom.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Expressing the Future

1. will is an auxiliary of the future in simply predicting a future event.

They will go to the country tomorrow.

2. The Present Continuous is used to express an arrangement, usually for the near future.

I'm going to the cinema tonight.

They are coming to see us tomorrow morning.

3. The Future Continuous expresses an activity that will be in progress around some particular time in the future.

Don't phone him tomorrow. He will be preparing for the seminar.

Tomorrow at this time we'll be crossing the English Channel.

4. The Future Perfect expresses an action which will have finished before a definite time in the future.

I'll have done this task by 4 o'clock.

Mother will have made the lunch by the time they come.

5. The Future Tenses are not used in the subordinate clauses of time and condition (if, when, before, after).

I'll go there after I finish this work.

If he invites her, I won't go to his party.

Exercise 1. Match a future form in box A with its definition in box B

A B

1. We'll have finished breakfast by 1. an arrangement

the time you come. 2. an activity which will be in

2. I am meeting her at 2 o'clock in progress at a certain time

Picadilly Circus. 3. a planned action

3. At 3 o'clock tomorrow we'll be 4. a simple prediction

having a nice time abroad. 5. an action that will be finished

4. I'll give you my jacket in case you before a definite time

need it.

5. You'll be very happy with your 6. a spontaneous intention

husband, I am sure. 7. an action that will happen in the

6. I am going to study English in Britain. natural course of events

7. My plane leaves at 10 on Thursday.

Exercise 2. Put the verb in brackets in a suitable future form.

1. I . . . (to go) to Germany next summer. 2. We have decided we . . . (to do) something different this weekend. Usually we go to the country. 3. If you . . . (to wake up) me tomorrow, I . . . (to go) there with you. 4. I . . . (to meet) Emma at three. She . . . (to join) us for dinner. 5. We . . . (to complete) the project by the end of the year. 6. When you . . . (to return), he . . . (to be) probably there already. 7. At 3 o'clock tomorrow he . . . (to present) his paper at the conference. 8. Before the end of the holiday he . . . (to spend) all his money. 10. Come at 7 o'clock. I'm sure Tom . . . (to come) by that time. 11. At four o'clock tomorrow I . . . (to play) tennis. 12. When Jill comes back everybody . . . (to be fast asleep). 13. What …you (do) when I come. 14. The train …(to leave) by the time we come to the station.

Exercise 3. Read a situation and then write a question in a future form.

Example: It is nice outside. You want to go for a walk.

Question: Shall we go for a walk?

1. You and your friend are late for a party and you suggest to take a taxi. You say . . .

2. You want to borrow a dictionary from your friend and want to know if he will be using it tonight. You say . . .

3. You want to visit your friend tomorrow at 5 o'clock but you don't know if he'll be busy. You say . . .

4. You want to know if your friend will have finished the work by tomorrow. You say ...

Text 2.

Pre-reading task.

What do you already know about the system of higher education in Great Britain?
Look through the text and find the answers to the folloing questions:

Where can higher education be obtained from in Great Britain?
Do the majority of young people proceed to higher education in Great Britain?
Name the three types of British universities.
What degree is usually taken in final examinations after the first three years of study?
What can you say about the teaching system in British universities?
Why is adult education so important?
Where can further education be obtained from?

Higher education in Great Britain can be obtained from a university, a college (or institute) of higher education or at alternative college. What usually identifies most of these institutions is that a student, after a prescribed period of study and after passing his examinations will receive a degree and become a graduate of his institution. However, only a small percentage of the age group in Britain proceeds to higher education, in contrast to the higher rates in many major industrial nations.

The universities

There were twenty-three British universities in 1960. After a period of expansion in the 1960s, there are now forty-six, with thirty-five in England, eight in Scotland, two in Northern Ireland, and one in Wales. They can be broadly classified into three types. The ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge (composed of their many colleges) date from the twelfth century, but until the nineteenth century they were virtually the only English universities and offered no place to women. However, old universities had been founded in Scotland, such as St.Andrews (1411), Glasgow (1450), Aberdeen (1494), and Edinburgh (1583). The second group comprises the `redbrick' or civic universities such as London, Leeds, Liverpool, and Manchester, which were mainly created between 1820 and 1930. The third group consists of the new universities founded after the Second World War, and later in the 1960s. Many of the latter, like Sussex and East Anglia, are set in rural countryside.

Only about 10 per cent of British students leave university without finishing their courses. The successful majority aim for a good degree in order to obtain a good job, or to continue in higher education by doing research (master's degrees and doctorates). The bachelor's degree (Bachelor of Arts or Science, BA or BSc) is usually taken in final examinations at the end of the third year of study, although degree courses do vary in length in different subjects. For example, engineering is often 4 years while medicine and architecture are usually 7 years. The final degree is divided into first-, upper-second, lower-second, third-class honours, and pass.

Teaching is mainly by the lecture system, followed up by tutorials (small groups) and seminars. Many university students may live on campus in university accomodation, while others may choose to live in rented property outside the university. Few British students choose universities near their parents' homes.

Other ways to obtain technical education

Polytechnics existed for some time in Britain in one form or another. But most of the recent institutions were created in the 1960s. The Polytechnics were initially seen as the “people's universities”, and were designed for specific tasks. But they have developed to such an extent that they are now equivalent to universities in many ways. All have higher degrees and research capacity, and since 1991 the Government has decreed that they should all be granted university status.

Today, the former polytechnics have a wide range of arts and science courses at both degree and sub-degree level. Students may study for a degree or a diploma in a professional skill and may be on a full-time or part-time course.

Further and Adult Education

An important aspect of British education is the provision of further and adult education, whether by voluntary bodies, trade unions, or state institutions. The present organizations originated to some degree in the thirst for knowledge which was felt by working-class people in the nineteenth- and early twentieth-century, particularly after the arrival of state education and mass literacy. Today, local authorities provide such educational opportunities in colleges of further education, technical colleges, and colleges of commerce. These institutions offer a considerable selection of subjects at basic levels for a wide range of part-time and full-time students. Many of these institutions also provide opportunities to students to take university entrance examinations.

Adult education is provided by these colleges, the universities, the Workers' Educational Association (WEA), evening institutes, and local societies and clubs. There has been a recent expansion of continuing-education projects, as well as programmes specifically designed for adult employment purposes. Adult courses may be vocational (relating to a person's job or search for a job) or recreational (for pleasure), and cover a wide range of activities.

There are several million part-time students at these various institutions, and their ages range from 16 to 80 and beyond.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Agree or disagree with the following statements.

1. The majority of youngsters in Great Britain proceed to higher education.

2. Oxford and Cambridge are the only ancient universities in Britain.

3. Very few of British students leave university without finishing their courses.

4. The Bachelor's degree is usually taken at the end of the fifth year.

5. University education is the only way to obtain technical education.

6. There are many colleges of further education in Britain.

7. Adult education has no age limit and enjoys high popularity in Britain.

Exercise 2. Enlarge on the following:

Bachelor of Arts (BA); Bachelor of Science (BSc); Master of Science;

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD); first-class honours; a `red-brick' university;

evening institute; a part-time student.

Exercise 3. Arrange the jumbled text given below

Student Grants

1. The Conservative government has tried to replace grants with a loan system. This means that students would have to finance their own higher education in much the same way as students in many European countries and in the USA.

2. Most students who gain a place at a recognized institution of higher education are awarded

a financial grant from their local authorities.

3. This is supposed to be enough to cover most of the fees and living expenses of a course during term time. But the size of the grant depends upon parental income (means test). This means that some students with rich parents may receive no grant, while others with less rich parents will be given a partial grant.

4. It seems likely that a modified loan scheme may be introduced in the near future by the government. But there is a strong feeling in Britain that higher education should be free for those who are qualified to take advantage of it.

5. The grant is reduced progressively at present as parental income passes 10,000 pounds. After this level, the parents are supposed to make a contribution to their children's grants. But almost 50 per cent do not make any contribution. Many students who receive a full grant complain that it is not enough to cover all expenses, and the grant has declined in real terms since the 1960s.

Exercise 4. Translate the following proverbs and quotations into

Russian. Explain them.

They know enough who know how to learn. (Henry Adams)

An investment to knowledge pays the best interest. (Benjamin Franklin)

Happy is he that is happy in his children.

There is no finer investment for any community than putting milk into babies. (W. Churchill)

To know is nothing at all, to imagine is everything. (Anatole France)

A little learning is a dangerous thing. (A.Pope)

Will and intellect are one and the same thing. (B.Spinoza)

Oral Practice

Describing People's Appearance

Patterns

What does he look like? - Как он выглядит?

General appearance:

tall, short, medium-height; fat, plump, thin, slim, well-built;

beautiful, nice, plain, attractive, good-looking, pretty, handsome.

Hair:

blonde, brown, black, red, ginger, white, grey, salt-and-pepper, fair;

straight, wavy, curly, short (-cut), long, bold (boldish),

moustache, beard.

Eyes:

black, grey, hazel, brown, blue, green, wide, slantish

Nose:

large, small, thin and long, up-turned, short, hawked.

Chin:

clean-shaven, pointed, dimpled, square

Exercise 1. Learn the dialogues by heart. Make dialogues of your own

using the patterns.

Ben: Hello, Peter. How are you?

Susan: Thanks, fine. And you?

Ben: Thanks, fine too. Have you seen Kate?

Susan: Kate? I think, I don't know her.

Ben: You do. Do you remember that attractive girl at Peter's party?

Susan: There were many attractive girls there. What does she look like?

Ben: She is slim and she's got hazel eyes and long dark hair.

Susan: Oh, yes, now I remember her. I haven't seen her since that party.

Peter: Have you taken after your mother or after your father, Kate?

Kate: After both of them. I've got wavy fair hair like my mother's and

a long thin nose like my father's.

Peter: Is your father tall?

Kate: Just average.

Peter: Has he got a beard or a moustache?

Kate: Neither of them.

Exercise 2. Play a game. One person thinks of a member of the class.

The rest of the group ask questions to guess who it is.

Exercise 3. One student describes a person and the rest of the class try

to draw a picture of this person.

Unit 4

Text 1

The British Steel Industry Today

Most of the early developments in iron and steel production originated in Britain, the world's eighth largest steel-production nation in 1979. The Iron and Steel Act 1967 brought together into public ownership 14 major companies and created the British Steel Corporation (BSC). In recent years BSC has produced about 82 per cent of Britain's crude steel and is the largest steel undertaking in Western Europe. As a result of the widespread industrial recession, employment in the steel industry has been declining, both in Britain and in other countries.

The remaining (private sector) companies are represented by the British Independent Steel Producers' Association whose members employ some 60,000 people and account for over a third of the value of the industry's turnover. The private sector is particularly strong in the manufacture of alloy and stainless steels and of finished products for the engineering industry. The main steel producing areas are Yorkshire and Humberside (32 per cent of crude steel output in 1979), Wales (32 per cent), the Northern region (15 per cent), Scotland (8 per cent) and the West Midlands (5 per cent).

About 75 per cent of British steel producers' deliveries of finished steel products are used by home industry and the remainder for direct export, the major markets for which are the rest of the European Community and the United States. A large part of the steel used by industry in Britain is also subsequently exported as part of other finished products.

The castings industry plays an important role in meeting the needs of manufacturers for essential components for products sold both in Britain and abroad. Its main customers are the vehicle, mechanical engineering, building and construction industries. The British Cast Iron Research Association, the Steel Casting Research and Trade Association conduct much of the research and development in the industry.

Britain's non-ferrous metal processing and fabricating industry is one of the largest in Europe. Its major products are aluminium (both virgin and secondary metal), secondary and refined copper, lead and primary zinc. Tin mining in Cornwall supplies about 25 per cent of Britain's tin requirements but otherwise British metal smelting and refining industries are based on imported ores. Britain is also a major producer of the newer specialised metals including uranium, zirconium and beryllium for the nuclear energy industry, niobium for aircraft production and selenium, silicon, germanium and tantalum for electronic apparatus. Titanium and titanium alloys are also produced and used in aircraft production, power generation and North Sea oil production, where their lightness, resistance to stress, flexibility and resistance to oxidisation are especially valued. Nearly half the industry is situated in the Midlands. Other centres include south Wales, London, Tyneside and Avonmouth, where a zinc smelter of some 100,000 tonnes capacity operates. Three large-scale aluminium smelters provide 85 per cent of Britain's requirements for primary aluminium. The large non-ferrous metals fabricating industry uses large quantities of imported refined metals such as copper, lead, zinc and aluminium. A wide range of semi-manufactures is produced in these metals and their alloys, and, particularly in aluminium, firms are engaged in smelting, casting and fabrication by rolling, extrusion and drawing; advanced techniques of powder metallurgy and pressure die-casting are also employed. In recent years considerable progress has been made in the development of `superplastic' alloys, which are more ductile and elastic than conventional alloys.

Scientific and technological research for the industry is conducted by the Warren Spring Laboratory of the Department of Industry and by the British Non-Ferrous (BNF) Metals Technology Centre.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below :

originated /?`rijineitid/; per cent / p? `sent/; crude /kru:d/; brought /bro:t/; major /'meij?/; recession /ri'se? n/; product /'prod? kt/; produce /pr? `dju:s/; production

/pr?`d/\k ?n/; subsequently /'s/\bsikw?ntli/; manufacturer / m?nju `fжkt??r?/; component /k?m'poun?nt/; vehicle /'vi: ikl/; aluminium /?lju'minj?m/; uranium /ju?`reinj?m/; zirconium /z?:'kounj?m/; berillium /b?:'rilj?m/; niobium /nai?`bj?m/; silicon /'silik?n/; germanium /j?:'meini? m/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word- combinations

given below. Use them in the sentences of your own.

необработанная сталь; объединить; предприятие; спад производства; частный сектор; занятость (рабочей силы); выпуск стали; конечный продукт; машиностроение; литейное производство; производитель; очищенная медь; добыча олова; самолетостроение; ударостойкость; мощностью в 100 тонн; прокатка; горячая штамповка; прогрессивные технологии; порошковая металлургия; оборот.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations

given below with their Russian equivalents.

1. to be represented 1. обрабатывающая промышленность

2. alloy 2. сплав

3. stainless steel 3. обычные (традиционные) сплавы

4.deliveries of finished steel products 4. устойчивость к окислению

5.to play an important role/part in 5.сталеплавильная промышленность

6. to meet the needs of manufac- 6. необработанный металл

tureres

7. essential components 7. полуфабрикат

8. virgin metal 8. поставки конечных продуктов

сталелитейного производства

9. secondary metal 9. вторичный (обработанный) металл

10. resistance to oxidation 10. основные компоненты

11. smelting industry 11. играть важную роль

12. refining industry 12. сверхэластичные сплавы

13. processing industry 13. удовлетворять потребности

производителей

14. superelastic alloys 14. быть представленным

15. conventional alloys 15. аффинажная промышленность

16. semi-manufacture 16. нержавеющая сталь

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What was the purpose of the Iron and Steel Act? 2. What organization represents the private sector in British metallurgy? 3. Where are the finished products of steel industry used? 4. Why is the castings industry so important? 5. Does non-ferrous metal processing play an important part in British metallurgy?

Exercise 4. Agree or disagree with the following statements.

1. The private sector of British metallurgy is not particularly strong.

2. Britain uses all its steel producers deliveries of finished steel products only for the needs of home industry.

3. The castings industry is underdeveloped in Great Britain.

4. Britain's non-ferrous metal processing and fabricating industry is one of the largest in Europe.

5. Nearly half of the industry is situated in the Midlands.

6. Britain does not produce the newer specialised metals (uranium, beryllium, etc.)

Exercise 5. Circle the letter of the answer that best matches the

meaning of the underlined word.

1. The Iron and Steel Act 1967 brought together into public ownership 14 major steel companies.

a) united b) desintegrated

2. The major steel producing areas in England are Yorkshire and Humberside.

a) minor b) main

3. This institute conducts much of the research in the industry.

a) fulfils b) carries out

4. All these qualities are highly valued.

a) appreciated b) demanded

5. About 75 per cent of steel products are used by home industry.

a) domestic b) foreign

6. The private sector is very strong in the manufacture of stainless steel.

a) processing b) production

7. Advanced techniques are highly employed in modern industry.

a) used b) applied

8. I think this is the most advanced method in language-learning.

a) modern b) progressive

Exercise 6. Give a written translation of the following passage.

The output of non-ferrous metals and their alloys in 1993 included primary and secondary (recycled) aluminium and copper, as well as aluminium and copper and copper alloy semi-manufactures. The production of metal relies mainly on imported ores and recycled material of both domestic and overseas origin.

Britain is a major producer of specialised alloys for high-technology requirements in the aerospace, electronic, petrochemical, nuclear and other fuel industries. Aluminium, lithium, developed by British Alcan Aluminium, is ideal for use in aircraft, being lighter, stronger and more rigid than normal aluminium.

There is also an important sector producing copper and copper alloy semi-manufactures for use in a wide variety of products like electric wire and cable; tube and fittings for plumping and valves; components for the engineering and transport industries.

Exercise 7. Phrasal verb GIVE

Match each of the collocations with the right description

1. give in 1. become exhausted, collapse

2. give out 2. submit, surrender

3. give up 3. pass

4. give-and-take 4. cease from trying

5. give over 5. to receive smb coldly

6. give away 6. to exchange on equal or fair terms

7. to give smb a hand 7. to say `good morning','good afternoon'

8. to give smb the cold shoulder 8. present; miss an opportunity

9. to give on the nail 9. to pay at once

10.to give the time of the day 10. to help smb

Exercise 8. Paraphrase the underlined collocations with the verb `give'

by those given at the end.

1. The ice gave way and we nearly went through the water.

2. `Can you give me a lift to Picadilly Circus?' I asked.

3. We must give ground, the enemy is too close to us.

4. He has given himself up to music.

5. At last she decided to give her hand to Oliver.

6. Don't give way to despair.

7. How much did you give for that coat?

8. Please, give me back the book you borrowed from me.

return; drive; break; devote; marry; pay; retreat; be overcome by.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Modal Verbs Expressing Ability and Permission

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

Present can can not can he

is able to is not able to is he able to

may may not may he

is allowed is not allowed is he allowed

is permitted is not permitted is he permitted

Past could could not could he

was able to was not able to was he able to

was allowed was not allowed was he allowed

was permitted was not permitted was he permitted

Future he will be able to will not be able to will he be able to

he will be allowed will not be allowed will he be allowed

he will be permitted will not be permitted will he be permitted

Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate modal verb. Give more than one variant if possible.

1. I . . . him to use my notes to prepare for the seminar. 2. . . . the students choose what they wanted to study? 3. You . . . keep the book for a month. After that you . . . return it to the library. 4. . . . you type? I . . . type, but I know a very good typist who will do this work for us. 5. . . . you lend me 5 quid. I'll pay you back tomorrow morning. 6. Since the accident I . . . to drive a car. 7. He read the letter but he . . . to understand it. 8. . . . I leave my bag with you? No, you . . .. I am leaving now. 9. I had the right visa so they . . . me to cross the border. 10. Who . . . answer my questions? 11. Do not leave for tomorrow what you . . . do today. 12. King Philip of France was not a good fighter and he . . . take part in the Crusades. 13. In Trafalgar Square you . . . see two beautiful fountains. 14. With the help of this guide book you . . . to see the most important London sights. 15. Taking a trip down the River Thames to the Tower of London you . . . get a glimpse of six London bridges. 16. . . . you tell us about your trip to London?

Exercise 2. You are a guest at your friend's home. What do you say in these situations:

1. You want another cup of tea.

2. You want to phone home.

3. You want to smoke.

4. You want to take a bath.

5. You want to borrow a towel.

6. You want an evening newspaper.

7. You want to watch TV.

8. You want your friend to wake you up next morning.

Text 2

Pre - reading Task

Scan the following passage in three minutes and find information

about the following:

a) the aim of Imperial College;

b) the structure of Imperial College;

c) the fields of work;

d) research programmes of Department of Materials;

e) links with the humanities.

Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine

Imperial College is located in London. It was established in 1907 by Royal Charter `to give the highest specialised instruction, and to provide the fullest equipment for the most advanced training and research in various branches of science, especially in its application to industry.' The College is part of the University of London which is the largest university in the country for full-time students and has many thousands part-time.

The College itself is a federation of four closely linked colleges: the Royal College of Science, the Royal School of Mines, the City and Guilds College and St.Mary `s Medical School. All these colleges are working in the broad fields of the physical sciences, the life sciences, the earth sciences, mining, metallurgy and allied subjects, the main branches of engineering, including computing, and medicine.

The reputation of the staff is high. There are Noble Prize winners, Fellows of the Royal Society and Fellows of the Fellowship of Engineering among them.

Imperial College has strong links with both industry and government. Visiting professors and lecturers, industry and government establishments make an important contribution to the more specialized teaching at the College. Industry also provides the College with financial support for certain academic posts, advanced courses, bursaries and scholarships.

There are many departments which provide various study and research programmes for students working for higher degrees (MPhil, MSc or PhD) or on the post-doctoral level. For example, Department of Materials has extensive facilities for the processing and examination of materials. The topics include the following: semiconductors and devices, silicate melts, slags and ashes; metal matrix composites; microstructure and property relationships in alloys; development of new alloys; corrosion and protection, etc. Science and Technology Studies (STS) at Imperial examines the culture of modern science and technology from the perspective of the humanities. Teaching and research emphasise the history, communications and public understanding of science and technology from the origins of the Industrial Revolution to the present.

Students' life at Imperial College is very interesting. There is a wide range of athletic, social and recreational clubs. All social, cultural and athletic needs of students are provided by the Imperial College Student Union.

(Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, 1993)

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:

1. The College is part of the University of London.

2. Imperial College has strong links with industry.

3. Industry doesn't provide the College with financial support.

4. Imperial College doesn't provide study programmes for applied sciences.

5. The humanities do not play an important part in the College curriculum.

6. Visiting professors from industry establishments often give lectures at Imperial College.

Exercise 2. Which of the two answers best matches the meaning of the

underlined word in the following sentences?

1.Imperial College is located in London.

a) existed b) situated

2. It gives instruction in the field of natural sciences.

a) education b) knowledge

3. Training of highly-qualified specialists is very important for national industry.

a) schooling b) preparation

4. Newton computed the weights of the planets.

a) measured b) calculated

5. There is a wide range of various clubs at Imperial College.

a) number b) scope

6. The stars are too numerous to be counted.

a) large b) abundant

7. This college is famous for the most advanced training.

a) progressive b) proceeded

8. Diamonds are expensive partly because they are so rare.

a) abundant b) scarce

Exercise 3. Here are the names of some faculties of Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys.

Make a topic about your college or institute, using this material. There is more additional material in Appendix:

Faculty of Non-ferrous and Precious Metals :

Some specialities: non-ferrous metals metallurgy; metal engineering and thermal treatment of metals; composite and powder materials; automation of technological processes and productions.

Faculty of Metallurgy Technologies, Mineral Resources Saving and Ecology:

Some specialities: metallurgy of ferrous metals; cast production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals; standartization and certification in metallurgy;

Faculty of Technology:

Some specialities: metallurgical equipment; press treatment of metals

Faculty of Semiconducting Materials and Devices:

Some specialities: material engineering and new materials technology; materials and components of solid state electronics; microelectronics and semiconducting devices.

Exercise 4. Arrange the jumbled text given below.

Evening Classes

1. The classes may be organized by the local education authority or by the Workers' Educational Association, and in them people find an agreeable social life as well as the means for pursuing their own hobbies more satisfactorily. All this, together with the popularity of amateur dramatics, can provide some comfort for those who fear that modern mass entertainment is producing a passive society.

2. The session for evening classes is normally from late September to the end of June (in some cases Easter), and when a definite course of study is being undertaken, it is most important that students should join the class at the beginning of the sessions in order to obtain full benefit from the course.

3. Apart from the organized classes mention must also be made of the privately arranged groups of people who join together for the pursuit of their hobbies.

4. Evening classes, each meeting usually once a week, are flourishing immensely, and not only those which prepare people for examinations leading to professional qualifications. Many people attend classes connected with their hobbies, such as photography, painting, folk-dancing, dog training, cake decoration, archaeology, local history, car maintenance and other subjects, some of them no less surprising than some of these.

5. Evening classes reopen every autumn for those who want to advance their career, to study for an examination, to follow up some special interest or to get more enjoyment out of their leisure hours. Men and women, old and young, professional and amateurs - all are catered for.

Oral Practice

Describing Feelings. Expressing Feelings. Character

Patterns

1. Describing feelings.

He is sad frightened sorry

She looks angry bored proud

feels puzzled excited worried

happy annoyed

2. Expressing feelings.

a) Congratulations and wishes

Congratulations! Поздравляю!

Many happy returns (of the day) Поздравляю с днем рождения

Merry Christmas! Поздравляю с Рождеством

(A) Happy New Year! C Новым годом!

(My) best wishes to you (Мои) наилучшие пожелания

May all your dreams come true Желаю,чтобы все ваши мечты сбылись!

Good luck! Желаю удачи!

Enjoy yourself! Желаю вам хорошо провести

Have fun! время (повеселиться)!

Have a good time!

b) Sympathy

Things will come right. Все обойдется.

Poor thing! Бедняжка!

What a shame ! Какая жалость!

Don't worry. Не беспокойся.

Take it easy . Не принимай близко к сердцу

Come on. Успокойтесь

Things do happen Всякое бывает

Let's hope for the best Давайте надеяться на лучшее

c) Anger, irritation

How awful/terrible/dreadful/ Как ужасно

horrible

It's outageous! Это возмутительно

It's ludicrous! Это смешно, нелепо

How annoying! Какая досада!

What a shame! Не стыдно?

Shame on you! Стыдитесь. Как вам не стыдно!

How dare you . . . Как вы смеете . . .

Leave me alone! Оставьте меня в покое

For God's/Heaven's sake! Ради Бога!

Exercise 1. Which of these patterns would be appropriate?

1. If you are sympathizing with someone in a grievous loss:

a) Hard luck b) Never mind c) I'm so sorry

2. If you are at a birthday party:

a) Congratulations! b) Many happy returns! c) Have fun

3. If you are consoling somebody on failing at an exam:

a) Take it easy! b) I'm so sorry! c) Don't worry

4. If a guest has spilled milk on your new dress:

a) How awful! b) Don't worry c) Shame on you

5. If you are congratulating your friend on his wedding.

a) May all your dreams come true. b) Have fun c) My best wishes to you

6. Congratulate your friend on moving to a new flat:

a) Have a good time b) Congratulations c) Have fun

7. Sympathise with a friend on something not very serious:

a) Poor thing! b) It's outrageous! c) Shame on you

Exercise 2. Learn the dialogues by heart and make dialogues of your own, using the patterns.

Kate - What a horrible morning! We were held up by the fog.

Ben - Wasn't the traffic awful this morning?

Kate - It was simply shocking. We had to wait for ages for the train.

Ben - How very annoying! Most annoying!

Peter - Hi, Susan.

Susan - Hello, Peter. You look so happy.

Peter - Oh, yes, I am. I'm on holiday.

Susan - Lucky you! Congratulations!

Peter - Thanks. I'm going off for a few days.

Susan - How nice for you! Have a good time.

III

Ben - Hello, Kate.

Kate - Hi, Ben. You look a bit sad.

Ben - Yes, I am.

Kate - Why, what's wrong?

Ben - I've left my bag in a bus.

Kate - What a shame. How miserable for you. Come on, things will come

right, you'll find it at a Lost Property Office.

Exercise 3. Which of the following are answers to good news and

which to bad news?

1. Thank goodness! 2. Try not to worry.

3. Don't worry. 4. Oh dear!

5. That's marvellous! 6. It's ludicrous!

7. Congratulations! 8. Well done!

9. What a shame! 10. Things do happen.

11. That's terrible. 12. It'll be all right.

13. Have a good time! 14. Let's hope for the best.

Just For Fun!

No one in the world has ever written just like you!

People have known for hundreds of years that the way you write can show what sort of person you are. Experts have written books on the subject. These experts are called graphologists. They study the size and slant of the letters. They also look to see if the style is simple or complicated.

You have your own special way of writing. No one in the world has ever written just like you. It is impossible to imitate exactly the way someone else writes. Handwriting experts often help the police to detect forgeries.

Is your writing big?

You want everybody to notice you. You always like to be in the centre of things and organise other people. You make big plans for your career.

Is your writing small?

You do not want people to notice you. You are reserved and keep your feelings to yourself. You are a very sensitive person.

Is your writing broad?

You always say what you think and you are not worried if other people do not like what you say. You are sure of yourself.

Is your writing narrow?

You like to have people and things around you that you know well. You like to do things that you know are safe. You do not like life to be very exciting.

Chapter 3

Unit 1

Non - Ferrous Metals

Text 1

The First Non - Ferrous Metals

Non-ferrous metals are the metals not composed of or containing iron. As it has been said before, copper was one of the first metals to be used. In its natural form, copper occurs in the ground as copper ore, a mineral. But this ore contains only 0.5 - 1 per cent of the metal. The rest is rock. The world produces 9.6 million tonnes of copper a year. This means that more than a thousand million tonnes of ore have to be removed from the ground and the pure copper extracted.

Most copper is extracted from a compound of iron, sulphur, and copper called sulphide ore. Hot air is blown into a furnace to separate the copper from the iron and sulphur. The iron and sulphur react with the oxygen to form iron oxide and sulphur dioxide, leaving molten copper metal. This copper, known as blister copper, is about 98 per cent pure. A process called electrolysis is needed to separate the remaining impurities. During this process a slab of blister copper is suspended in a solution of copper sulphate and sulphuric acid, where it acts as a positive electrode (anode). When electricity is passed through the solution, the copper in the anode is dissolved. The pure copper collects at the negative electrode (cathode) and the impurities fall below.

Copper is a good conductor of heat and electricity. We use it to make cooling utensils and all sorts of pipes for carrying hot water, both in homes and in industry. We also use it to make different kinds of electrical devices, such as lightning conductors and the electric coils in motors. Copper does not rust easily, so it lasts a very long time.

Such metals as lead and tin were widely known in Roman times. Lead is a soft malleable, ductile, bluish-white, dense metallic element, extracted chiefly from galena and used in containers and pipes for corrosives, in solder and type metal, bullets, radiation shielding, paints and anti-knock compounds.

Some Roman aqueducts still stand today because they were lined with lead and lead does not rust. Many thousands of tonnes were used in a single aqueduct. So much lead was used in water-supply systems that eventually the Romans suffered some lead-poisoning.

Tin was the fifth metal discovered by man. It is a malleable, silvery metallic element obtained chiefly from cassiterite. It is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion, and forms part of numerous alloys such as soft solder, pewter, type metal and bronze. For example,pewter, an alloy of lead and tin, was widely used in Roman times to make cups and dishes.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below:

sulphur /'s/\ lf?/; sulphide /'s/\ lfaid/; pure /'pju:э/; electrolysis /ilek'trolisis/; sulphuric /s?l'fju?rik/; cathode /kжрoud/; anode /'ж noud/; galena /g?`li:n?/; corrosive /k?`rousiv/; cassiterite /k?`sit?rait/; pewter /'pju:t?/; aqueduct /'жkwid?kt/.

Task 2

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-

combinations given below. Use them in the sentences

of your own.

цветные металлы; содержать железо; извлекать; железо и сера вступают в реакцию с кислородом; электролиз; сляб; анод и катод; электрообмотка; молниеотвод; галенит; припой; гарт; касситерит; предотвратить коррозию; мягкий припой; сплав на оловянной основе; олово; система водоснабжения; ржаветь; акведук.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents.

1. to be composed of 1. едкое вещество

2. sulphide ore 2. оседать на дно

3. sulphur dioxide 3. состоять из

4. blister copper 4. длиться долгое время

(зд. долговременный)

5. fall below 5. электроприборы

6. electrical devices 6. двуокись серы, сернистый ангидрид

7. to last a long time 7. противорадиационный экран

8. corrosive 8. свинцовые отравления

9. radiation shielding 9. покрывать металлы

10. lead-poisoning 10. пузырчатая медь

11. to cover metals 11. серный (железный) колчедан, пирит

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What is a non- ferrous metal? 2. What is most copper extracted from? 3. Why is copper so widely valued? 4. Were lead and tin widely known in Roman times? 5. How did the Romans use lead? 6. What are the properties of tin? 7. Why is tin widely used for coating other metals?

Exercise 4. Using English to define.

Aristotle suggested that a good definition should include a general classification of a term plus the specific characteristics that differentiate the term from other members of its class.

Definition formula: Term = Class + Characteristics

In the text given above there are some definitions of tin and lead. Using the pattern put the jumbled words into the right order to make a definition.

1. a process, is, to form, casting, a liquid metal, by pouring, into a

particular shape, into a mold.

2. a mineral, ore, is, can be extracted, a metal, from which.

3. pale-yellow, a, element, sulphur, is, non-metallic.

4. the basis, a star, sun, of, that, is, the solar system, is.

5. uranium, radioactive, metallic, silvery-white, is, heavy, element, easily

oxidized, a.

6. the, of, environment, is, ecology, study, the.

7. ground, a, on, fog, is, cloud, the, forms, that.

8. the, state, Bavaria, is, largest, southern, the, West Germany, of, in, part.

Exercise 5. Vocabulary in context: Choose the word that best matches

the meaning of the underlined word as it is used in each of

the sentences.

1. Calcium is obtained from the electrolysis of calcium chloride.

a) destroyed b) got

2. The initial research was not successful, so a second experiment was planned.

a) last b) first

3. He wanted to shield himself from the burning sun.

a) open b) protect

4. The space between the earth and the moon is a vacuum.

a) empty b) full

5. The earth absorbs the water from the rain.

a) gives off b) drinks in

6. All efforts were concentrated on the research programme.

a) devoted b) centered

7. Our natural resources are not inexhaustible.

a) limited b) endless

Exercise 6. Give a written translation of the following passages

Leaching

In some ores the copper is combined with oxygen. In a process called leaching, sulphuric acid is sprayed over these copper oxide ores, which dissolves the copper but not the rock. The copper and sulphuric acid form solution of copper sulphate, which is purified by electrolysis.

Carrie Everson

Ores contain a mixture of valuable metallic substance and worthless rock. An American schoolteacher, Carrie Everson, invented a way of separating the two in 1886. She ground up ore and mixed it with oil and acid. This produced a froth in which the metallic substances floated while the rocky materials sank.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Modals of Necessity

The modals of necessity are must (which is also used to express strong probability); have to; be to; ought to; should.

Must expresses a very strong need:

You must do it.

You must not go there.

Have to expresses need because of certain circumstances:

She is ill and I have to visit her.

Be to expresses a planned or scheduled necessity:

The train was to arrive at 2 o'clock.

Should and ought to express moderate necessity, sometimes recommendation. These verbs are used to express advice or to make suggestions. They do not change:

You should (ought to) help her to do this work.

In technical instructions should is often used to mean `must' (particularly for warnings):

The electricity should be shut off.

Exercise 1. Insert the verb to be (to) or to have (to) in the necessary tense-form.

It looks like raining. 2. You … to take your raincoats. 3. We …to leave Moscow on Monday. 4.You not …to tell them about it if you don't want to. 5.I did not expect that the worst …to happen. 6.You not …to discuss this problem with him before you get all the necesary instructions. 7.This very evening I … to dine with a gentleman whom I have never met before. 8.Stay here while he is busy. I don't think you'll …to wait long.

9. We …to work hard to achieve good results. 10. It was getting pretty late, and I …to leave in order not to be late for the last bus. 11. I did not know who …to be my roommate. 12. He …to leave for Bath that night but suddenly changed his plans. 13. He said you would …to go there alone. 14.The order came that we … not to leave the village before night. 15. Remember that you … to be at his place not later than ten.

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the modal verbs expressing necessity.

1. He was disappointed because he . . . get up at 6 o'clock. 2. I have invited my friends for lunch. They . . . come at one o'clock. 3. You . . . make any noise after 11 o'clock. 4. Peter, you . . . clean your own boots. 5. I . . . be at the station at ten. It is very important. 6. You . . . eat between meals; it will make you fat. 7. I'm afraid I . . . go now. I . . . to meet Mother at the station. 8. It is very late. You . . . phone them now. 9. The situation was very dangerous. He felt that something . . . to be done. 10. You . . . eat so much bread; you will gain weight. 11. We . . . to leave on Friday. 12. Nobody met me when I came. I . . . to arrive by the ten o'clock train, but I couldn't get a ticket, so I was late. 13. Why . . . I suffer? What have I done? 14. It was too late to change the plan, and it . . . to remain as it was.

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

Explain the use of the modals.

1. You must have a visa in your passport to visit Britain. 2. I promised I'd be on time, I mustn't be late. 3. Yesterday I was to meet her at the station at three o'clock but the train was late. 4. You ought to ask somebody for advice. It is a very difficult problem to solve it alone. 5. You haven't got much time, you must hurry. 6. I think you should accept this job. 7. You must stop smoking. 8. You should stop smoking. 9. It is a really good play. You ought to go and see it. 10. She had to move to another appartment because she hadn't enough money to pay for the old one. 11. I am sure they shouldn't get married. They are too different. 12. Do you really have to do all this work about the house? Yes, I'm afraid I have to because my husband is too busy at his work and comes back late at night.

Text 2

British Customs and Traditions

Pre - reading task

1. What do you know about English customs and traditions?

2. When is All Fools' Day celebrated?

3. What is connected with April Fools' Day?

April Fools' Day

April Fools' Day is a custom observed in many countries. On this day people play tricks, practical jokes. In Britain all must end on the stroke of noon. If anyone attempts a trick after midday, the intended victim retorts:

April Fools gone past,

You are the biggest fool at last!

A variety of theories have been put forward to account for this lively and persistent custom, but its origin still remains obscure. Below there are two examples of how Englishmen enjoy themselves on April 1st. They may change the idea of this nation.

A Practical Joke.

About forty years ago a tradesman of the town Dover had a good laugh at the expense of his fellow citizens.

On March 31 of the year in question, a large number of persons who owned dogs received a very official-looking document. It was marked “Urgent”, and it bore the municipal coat of arms at the head of the page. The document was typewritten and signed by the Mayor of the town. It ran as follows:

“Owing to a sudden outbreak of hydrophobia, it has become necessary

to take special measures of precaution against this terrible malady and

to have all the dogs of the town vaccinated.”

The notice went on to say that all persons owning dogs were therefore summoned to appear at the Town Tall at 10 o'clock sharp on the following morning, April 1st, accompanied by their pets.

By ten o'clock on the day appointed, hundreds of dogs, muzzled and unmuzzled, and of all breeds and sizes have assembled and were barking and wagging their tails in the courtyard of the Town Hall.

Aroused by the hubbub, the astonished officials came to the windows. None of them knew what to make of it. When the owners of the dogs showed their summonses and demanded admission, they were informed that there must be some mistake, as no such notices had been sent out.

Gradually, it dawned upon the victims that some wit or other had made April fools of them. Most of them took it in good part and after a hearty laugh dispersed to their homes.

An April Fool's Day Hoax

On April 1st, 1957, BBC Television played an elaborate April Fool's Day hoax on the viewers of a normally staid weekly current affairs programme. It showed a film about a bumper spaghetti crop being harvested in Southern Switzerland, near the Italian frontier. Included in the film were shots of agricultural workers picking long strands of spaghetti from bushes. The presenter of the film commented on the uniform length of the spaghetti; the result, he said, of many years of patient cultivation by plant breeders. After the programme was over, hundreds of viewers telephoned the BBC. Some of the calls were from viewers who had enjoyed the hoax, including one who complained that spaghetti didn't grow vertically, but horizontally. Some of the calls were from viewers who wanted to know where they could buy spaghetti bushes. Mainly, though, the calls were from viewers who were no longer certain that spaghetti was made with flour and water and not grown. Such is the power of television.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Complete the statements given below by choosing

the right variant.

1. The origin of April Fools' Day still remains . . .

a) in the dark b) obscure c) very clear

2. A large number of dog owners received an official letter . . .

a) on March 30 of the year in question b) on March 31, 1899

c) on March 31 of the year in question

3. According to this letter all dogs of the town had to be . . .

a) brought to the nearest veterinary b) vaccinated

c)taken out of the town

4. By ten o'clock on the day appointed . . .

a) nobody had come to the Town Hall

b) everybody had stayed at home because they didn't believe the letter

c) hundreds of citizens had brought their pets to the Town Hall

5. The practical joke played by BBC Television brought to . . .

a) many calls from viewers who wanted to buy spaghetti bushes

b) a big scandal c) much laughter from viewers

Exercise 2. Choose phrasal verbs given below to complete the sentences.

take measures against; go on; make of; send out; be over;

dawn upon; take smth in good part; play a hoax on; make with.

1. You should . . . the epidemic of flu.

2. I don't know what . . . your statement.

3. At last it . . . him that it was a practical joke.

4. The lesson . . ., you may go home.

5. The secretary was asked . . . letters of invitation.

6. On April 1, 1957 BBC Television . . . viewers but many of them didn't believe what they had seen and . . . the programme.

7. This cake . . . flour, butter, eggs and sugar.

Exercise 3. Look through the text and find the synonyms to the

following words.

1. merry 2. undertake 3. many 4. frontier

5. illness 6. finish 7. invite 8. good laugh

9. gather 10. be sure

Exercise 4. Translate the following proverbs and idioms into

Russian. Describe the situations when you can use them.

a) It would make even a cat laugh.

b) Many a true word is spoken in jest.

c) Every man has a fool in his sleeve.

d) To cap someone's joke.

e) To laugh up one's sleeve.

Exercise 5. What is a practical joke? Speak about a practical joke

you played on your friends or they played on you.

Oral Practice

Describing Objects and Their Uses.

Materials and patterns

Questions Replies

1. What is it like? 1. It is . . . with . . .

2. What is it made of? 2. It's made of . . .

3. What is it used for? 3. It's used for (+Gerund)

4. How long (wide,thick) is it? 4. It's 50 cm long (wide, thick)

5. Can I have a thing for . . .? 5. Oh, you mean . . . Yes,of course.

Materials: (it is made of . . .)

plastic, metal, gold, silver, copper, leather, silk, cotton, wool, nylon, china (porcelain), velvet, cord.

Shapes: (it is . . .)

round, pointed, oval, cylindrical, square, triangular, rectangular, elliptical, spherical, long, short, wide, narrow, thin, thick, curved.

Colours: red, blue, white, green, grey, black, brown, orange,yellow, purple, greenish, light/pale blue, dark/deep brown.

Other describing characteristics:

This river is 3,5 miles long.

The Mount Everest is 8,848 metres high.

This lake is 3 miles wide.

The pipe is 2 centimetres thick.

The river has a length of 3,5 miles.

The sun has a surface temperature of 11 000 F.

In a description you can use such adverbs as:

This object is relatively small. Zinc is rather reactive. Copper salts are slightly blue. It is extremely hot in deserts.

Remember: Science demands objectivity and precision in descriptions.

Exercise 1. State what would make the following descriptions more scientific:

1. We used statistical approach.

Steel is less corrosive.
The surface temperature of the sun is 11 000.
The river Thames is rather long.
The Grand Canyon is 5 500 feet.

Exercise 2. Learn the dialogues by heart and make up similar dialogues

of your own using the patterns.

Kate - Excuse me, can I have a thing for cutting paper. I forgot the English

word for it.

Shop-assistant - Do you mean a razor?

Kate - Oh, no. It is about 15 centimeters long or may be longer. It is made of

metal with plastic handles. It is also used for cutting textile.

Shop-assistant - Oh, you mean scissors. Here you are.

Susan - Oh, dear! I'm afraid, I've lost my new pendant.

Ben - What is it made of?

Susan - It's made of yellow metal.

Ben - What shape is it?

Susan - It is oval and there is a blue stone in it.

Ben - Here it is. You've left it on the table.

Exercise 3. Work in pairs.

a) You are at the Lost Property office. You've lost your scarf (hat, bag, etc.). Describe it to the clerk there.

b) The clerk asks more questions about your scarf (hat, bag, etc.) and tries to find it.

Exercise 4. You are staying with an English family. Your room hasn't

got everything you need. Say, what you need. If you don't

know how a thing is called, describe it to your hosts.

Unit 2

Text 1

Precious Metals

Why are some metals so much more valuable than others? Gold, silver and platinum have been highly valued for centuries because of their scarsity, beauty and high qualities. The result of the rush for these metals was death, blood and tragedy.

When Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas in 1492, Spanish expeditions soon followed, and though they are much criticised for their cruelty, greed and treachery, the military achievements of the `Conquistadores' were remarkable. First they conquered Mexico and took away its valuable treasures. Seeking more land and wealth they invaded Peru, home of the Incas. Here they murdered the king and stole his vast hoard of gold - probably the greatest in the world. The natives were enslaved and set to work to win more gold. Later the Spanish conquered Chile and Bolivia, both of these countries being rich in precious metals, particularly silver.

To the metallurgists, the most exciting discovery made by the Spaniards was the finding of platinum in the silver mines of Mexico. At that time the new metal was regarded as more of a nuisance than of value. It could not be melted by any known method, though it was possible to make a very realistic imitation gold from it. Later it joined the group of precious metals and is now used for jewellery and in industry. Its high melting point makes it suitable for electrical contacts where the heat of sparks would melt other metals. In the chemical industries its resistance to corrosion is of great value.

Gold is the most malleable of all the metals. It can be hammered into sheets so thin that 250 of them would equal the thickness of a sheet of paper. It is also the most ductile metal. One gram of gold can be drawn into a wire 1.8 miles in length.

Gold is the least chemically active of all metals and does not combine with oxygen to form rust. This ability to resist corrosion makes it very durable, i.e. it may last for centuries. Pure gold is too soft to be used in jewelry so it is usually alloyed with other metals. The proportion of gold in an alloy is measured in karats. Pure gold is 24 karats. A 14 karat gold ring is an alloy of about 58% of gold and small percentages of copper and silver.

Silver is similar to gold in many ways. Like gold, it is very malleable and ductile and so it is also used for jewelry. Silver differs from gold in that it is more reactive and tarnished when exposed to the traces of sulfur in the air. (Silver sulfide, a black deposit, forms on its surface). Pure silver is too soft and so it is usually alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and durability. Sterling silver is 92.5 percent silver and 7.5 percent copper. Silver is used for coins and for photographic film because certain compounds of silver, such as silver bromide, reflect light. Silver is the best conductor of electricity known.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below:

critisize /'kritisaiz/; achievements /?`t?i:vm?nts/; conquistadors /'konkisteid?z/; conquer /'konk ?/; platinum /'plжtin?m/; Peru /p?`ru:/; Chile /'t? ili/; Bolivia /b?`livi?/; Mexico /'meksikou/

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-combinations

given below. Use them in the sentences of your own.

огромный запас золота; засесть за работу; рассматривать; имитация золота; известный метод; драгоценные металлы; высокая точка плавления; химическая промышленность; ювелирное украшение; измерять; терять блеск (окисляться); серебро высшей пробы; фотопленка; серебряные копи.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations

given below with their Russian equivalents.

1. to critisize for 1. в поисках новых земель и богатства

2. remarkable achievements 2. повысить износостойкость

3. seeking more land and wealth 3. богатый драгоценными металлами

4. to set to work 4. растянуть в проволоку

5. to equal smth 5. отражать свет

6. to increase durability 6. засесть зa работу

7. to reflect light 7. быть равным ч-л

8. rich in precious metals 8. наименее химически активный металл

9. the least chemically active metal 9. удивительные достижения

10. to draw into a wire 10. критиковать за

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions:

1. What are the precious metals valued for? 2. When did the Spanish expeditions set fot South America? 3. What did they find there? 4. What was their most exciting discovery? 5. Why is it easy to hammer gold into thin sheets? 6. Where is gold used? 7. What are the properties of silver?

Exercise 4. In the text given above you could find the fragments of the

definitions of gold and silver. Make them complete definitions.

Listed in the box are some guidelines for writing good definitions.

They are followed by poorly written definitions. Say, what is wrong

with them and correct them.

1. Identify the class. You may also use descriptions, comparions, examples.

2. Be precise. Do not only identify the class, but give the characteristics that differentiate this object or phenomenon from others.

3. Use negative definitions (like “An apple is not a vegetable”) when you think people have a wrong idea. But then follow it with a proper definition.

4. Be objective. Always remember about those you are speaking to. A child needs an easier and more detailed definition.

1. An apple is round, red and about the size of a fist.

2. An astronomer is a scientist.

3. Radium is an element.

4. A pizza is something really good to eat.

5. Helium is light.

6. Barometer measures air pressure.

7. Conduction transfers heat.

8. An agronomist is a person who practises agronomy.

Exercise 5. Translate at sight.

Metals and Non-metals

The 105 elements do not, fortunately, exhibit 105 completely different sets of properties. When the major properties are considered it is found that the elements fall into one or two groups, the metals or the non-metals. The contrast between the properties of these two groups is given below. It is not to be expected that all elements in one class will agree in every detail; some differ in one or two properties from the others of their class; these exceptions are indicated in brackets.

Metals Non-Metals

Physical properties

1.Solid at room temperature (mercury 1.Many are liquids and gases at room

is the only liquid metal) temperature

2.Have a high density (except 2. Density is usually low

potassium and sodium)

3.Can be moulded by pressure, i.e. 3. Solid non-metals are brittle

they are malleable

4.Have high melting points and 4. Have low melting points and

boiling points boiling points

5.Are good conductors of heat, 5. Are poor conductors of heat and

electricity electricity (graphite is the only good

conductor of electricity among non-

metals

6.Can be drawn into wire, i.e. they 6.Cannot be drawn into a wire

are ductile

Chemical properties

7. Have basic oxides 7. Have acidic oxides

8. React with dilute acids form- 8. Salts of non-metals do not exist

ing salts

9.Form positive ions 9. Form negative ions

10.Are liberated at the cathode 10. Are liberated at the anode

during electrolysis (hydrogen during electrolysis

acts as a metal)

The chemical properties are much more conclusive than the physical properties for deciding whether a particular element is to be regarded as a metal or a non-metal, e.g. if an element forms a basic oxide it must be classified as a metal. A basic oxide is never formed by a non-metal.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Modal Verbs of Deduction

We use modal verbs of deduction to express degrees of certainty about the present and the past.

1. To express certainty we use must in the positive and can't in the negative.

He must be at work now. Должно быть, он сейчас дома.

He can't be at home now.

2. To express possibility we use can, could

They can be at work now. Вероятно, он сейчас на работе.

To express probability we use may, might

He may not be there yet. Boзможно, его еще там нет.

4. Modal verbs of deduction are often used to hypothesize

There may be a fifth force in nature that causes objects to fall at different rates.

Exercise 1. Rewrite these sentences using a modal verb of deduction

Example: 1. I am sure he is in Moscow now. - He must be in Moscow now.

2. I think he has finished this work. - He can have finished this work.

3. Perhaps she will help us. - She may help us.

1. I am sure he has been at the conference. 2. Perhaps Steve has got this grant. 3. He probably wanted her to marry him. 4. Perhaps she has been to London already. 5. I am sure James is a famous scholar. 6. He probably didn't want her to meet them. 7. I am sure she didn't work hard at school. 8. They have probably tried to get the tickets for this play. 9. I am sure they are in a hurry. 10. I think Brian has no money to buy a new car. 11. Probably Tom is coming to see us tomorrow. 12. I am not definitely sure what I am doing this weekend. 13. It's possible that I am going to Italy in July. 14. The director is away so perhaps there won't be a meeting on Friday. 15. I am sure he has got everything he needed. 16. If he walks from the station, perhaps he will come in time. 17. There is probably some misunderstanding. 18. My students are certainly at the conference now. 19. There is no doubt he is coming to her birthday party. 20. Is it possible that this old man is his brother?

Exercise 2. What can you deduce from the following situations?

Example: Look, John is standing under the clock!

He may be waiting for somebody.

He must have an appointment.

1. John has lost a lot of weight recently. 2. It's the beginning of your lesson and your teacher isn't here. 3. The children are making a lot of noise in the court-yard. 4. He has got an enormous sum of money. 5. Paul looks so unhappy. 6. Liz is wearing a beautiful dress. 7. There is nobody in the room. Where is everybody? 8. Ann doesn't want to see Bill. 9. He has got a chess board with him. 10. He is working so hard now.

Exercise 3. Use the necessary modal verb of deduction.

1. He seldom goes out he . . . be working hard. 2. Nobody answers the phone, they . . . have gone somewhere. 3. You . . . have asked me for this book, I have it at home. 4. His face seems familiar to me, we . . . have met before. 5. He began this work only yesterday, he . . . not have finished it. 6. Why don't you tell him about it, he . . . help you. 7. She doesn't want to see him any longer. They . . . have quarrelled. 8. There is a bell. Ann . . . be coming from the party. 9. She … not be working there. She is not a good PC user. 10. He is such a good student. He … not have done the work so carelessly. 11. They … be unable to get in touch with you. 12. He … be late. He is so punctual. 13. He … have learnt the news, he looks as if nothing has happened. 14. They … not have refused to take part in the discussion, they have been working on this problem for a month.

Exercise 4. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the modals of deduction.

1. He is so late. He must have taken a wrong bus. 2. Why hasn't he come to our meeting? He couldn't forget about it. He may have fallen ill. 3. Everything must have been arranged beforehand. 4. It may have been taken for a joke. 5. They can't fail to recognize you, you haven't changed much. 6. Look! People are hurrying along the streets with umbrellas up. It must be raining hard. 7. They must have been writing the test for an hour, they are looking so tired. 8. Don't be angry with her. She may have done it by mistake. 9. They couldn't have said anything of the kind. 10. If nothing prevents them, they can arrive tomorrow morning.

Text 2

Pre - reading task

1. Scan the text in 5 minutes and find information about the following:

a) the climates of the US;

b) the original inhabitants;

c) the American Revolution;

d) the reason for the US Civil War;

e) the US participation in the two World wars.

The USA

Land and Climate

The United States covers the central portion of North America and includes Alaska and Hawaii. It is the fourth largest country in the world. Because of its size and location, it has many different climates and a variety of geographical features. Large mountains, vast deserts, wide canyons, rolling hills, prairies, frozen tundra, extensive coasts, forests, tropical islands, wetlands, swamps, and other features can be found. The West Coast rises to the Rocky Mountains, which give way to a vast central plain that merges with the rolling hills and low mountains of the east.

Climates are as varied as the terrain. Humidity is often high in the east and southeast, while the west is drier. Most of the nation experiences all four seasons, with cold and snowy winters and warm summers. The southwest and southeast experience fewer variations in climate and rarely receive snow in winter.

History

North America's history before Europeans arrived is incomplete, but the original inhabitants had large empires and advanced civilizations. From the seventeenth century on, the Native Americans were displaced by Eorupean settlers who had come for riches, territory, and new world. British colonies (the Thirteen Colonies) were established on the east coast of North America. Spanish and French explorers also claimed large territories.

By the mid-eighteenth century, the colonists desired independence from Great Britain. The American Revolution of 1776 led to independence and a loose confederation of states. The Constitution of 1787 established the basic form of government as it exists today. Explorers and pioneers moved west and settled large areas of land. The United States acquired territory from France, Mexico, and Spain throughout the nineteenth century, expanding its borders from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific.

In 1861, civil war broke out between Union states in the north and Confederate states in the south over issues of slavery, secession, and economic differences. Union forces, under President Abraham Lincoln, defeated the Confederacy in 1865 and reunited the country.

Although American troops were only involved in the last year of World War I, the United States was a major combatant in World War II and emerged as the strongest economic and military power in the world. Through its assistance to developing countries, the United States spread American values and influence throughout the world, which some nations welcomed and others did not.

American prominence declined in the 1970s because of the US defeat in the Vietnam War. This trend continued in the 1980s as other nations became more powerful, especially economically, but the United States remains an important member of the world community. In 1991, it led a coalition of nations in a war against Iraq to liberate Kuwait from occupation. It then participated in refugee relief operations and peace talks for the settlement of regional disputes.

The United States is an active member of the United Nations and is a key donor of international aid. It has never been ruled by a dictator and has always had free elections to determine its leadership. It considers itself the world guardian of freedom and democracy.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Agree or disagree with the statements given below. Check

your answers while re-reading the text.

1. The original inhabitants of North America were not civilized.

2. The Americans unlike the British have a written Constitution.

3. Civil war was directed against slavery.

4. American troops were a major force in World War I.

5. American economic growth declined in the 1970s.

Exercise 2. Complete these statements by choosing the answer which

you think fits best.

- The American Revolution of 1776 led to

a) the disruption of the country;

b) Civil war;

c) independence.

- After World War II the United States

a) lost economic prominence;

b) emerged as the strongest economic power;

c) was completely desabled economically.

- American troops were involved in World War I

a) from the very beginning;

b) in its last year;

c) in the middle of it.

- American prominence declined in the 1970s because of

a) the US participation in the war against Iraq;

b) economic recession;

c) the US defeat in the Vietman War.

Exercise 3. Choose the answer that best matches the meaning

of the underlined word

1. Because of its size and location the US has many different climates

a) disposition b) presence

2. His story will be incomplete without these details.

a) unfinished b) inaccurate

3. The natives were displaced by European settlers.

a) turned b) removed

4. Pioneers moved west and settled large areas of land.

a) adjusted b) inhabited

5. The US has always assisted developing countries.

a) helped b) promoted

6. This scientist is known throughout the world.

a) in b) all over

7. He has participated in many important events and can tell you much about his experience.

a) played a part b) taken part

8. You are my real guardian. I know I can rely on you in any situation.

a) protector b) supervisor

Exercise 4. Decsribe Russia using the patterns from the text.

Oral Practice

Inviting. Eating out.

Patterns

Questions Replies

1. What are you doing tonight? 1. - Nothing in particular.

- I'm having dinner with Ben.

- Sorry, I'm busy tonight. I am

playing tennis with Jill.

2. Would you like to go out for a 2. - Sorry, another time. I have a

meal with me tonight? previous engagement.

(Come and have dinner?) - Yes, that would be nice, I'd love to.

- How kind of you. Thank you.

3. What would you like? 3. - I'd like prawn cocktail (to start with)

and steak and kidney pudding for the

main course.

4. Would you like a drink? 4. - Just a tonic (mineral water, orange juice)

- A half of bitter (lager, Guinness)

- A glass of red/white wine.

- A vodka (double whisky on the rocks,

a gin and tonic.

5. Could you provide a vegetarian 5. - I'll see what I can do for you.

dish for me?

6. May I have the bill? 6. - Here you are.

Can I have the wine-list?

7. How much do I owe you for the 7. - Never mind, it's on me.

dinner?

8. Shall we share? 8. - Never mind, I pay.

The Pier Restaurant

Starters Fishes. Seafood

Baked stuffed mushrooms Baked and stuffed shrimp

Norwegian herring Fresh filet of sole

Fried squid Fresh caught fish of the day

Shrimp cocktail Cod scallops

Steaks The Pier's Special

Roast Prime rib of beef Cornish Pastry

Baby calves liver Shepherd's pie

Prime Sirloin Steak

Exercise 1. Learn the dialogues by heart and make dialogues of your own

using the patterns

Ben : What are you doing tonight, Kate?

Kate: Nothing in particular

Ben: Come and have dinner with me tonight?

Kate: How kind of you, thank you.

II.

Ben: Have you got a table for two?

Waiter: Yes, sir. This way, please. Here you are.

Ben: Can we have the menu and wine-list, please?

Waiter: Yes, certainly. Here you are. Are you ready to order?

Ben: I think so. What would you like for starters, Kate?

Kate: Baked stuffed mushrooms.

Ben: Two baked stuffed mushrooms, please.

Waiter: And for the main course?

Ben: Fresh caught fish of the day, please.

III

Kate: Cornish pasty, what is it, Ben?

Ben: It's meat and vegetables in thin pastry. Very delicious, I can say.

I like the way they cook it here.

Exercise 2. You are giving a party. Discuss with your mother what you

will have for dinner. Make the shopping list.

Exercise 3. You are in the Pier's Restaurant. Make dialogues between

customers and a waiter, using the menu and the patterns.

Unit 3

Text 1

The Alchemists

During the Middle Ages, alchemists searched for a way to change base metals, like lead, into gold. They thought that if they could find the right formula, they could, for example, add a certain amount of mercury to lead and produce gold. Even the great Sir Isaac Newton believed it could be done.

The experiments the alchemists carried out were sometimes very elaborate. Some put the metals through a hundred purifying processes and added a great deal of so-called magic as well. Of course, all these efforts came to nothing, but the alchemists were convinced that they would succeed and plodded on until about the seventeenth century.

Although scientific knowledge was acquired during the course of these experiments, the basic idea behind them was not to enrich the minds of men with a store of knowledge but to enrich the alchemists themselves with a store of gold. Dishonest people became interested and decided that it was unnecessary to make real gold - but merely something that looked like it. Soon these people, who were called `Puffers' were selling false gold to the credulous. Laws and dire penalties were devised to stop them, but they continued to operate on an international scale until the Royal Mints were established. Nothing could then be valued as real gold unless it had the `hallmark' of the Royal Mint on it.

But there were real scientists among the alchemists. One of them was Roger Bacon, called `the Admirable Doctor' who lived in the 13th century. He was a great philosopher encyclopedist and alchemist, an Oxford graduate. One of his lectures was misinterpreted and the people who were present there decided that Bacon had discovered the `Philosopher's Stone', which would not only cure all the diseases but also convert metals such as copper into gold.

The Catholic Church got interested in the works of Roger Bacon. The Pope himself gave him a laboratory in Paris University. Bacon worked very much, made some discoveries, his fame grew on and the Pope, thinking that Bacon didn't want to reveal the secret of the `Philosopher's Stone' imprisoned him. The scientist spent 20 years during which he had no right to speak to anybody. There he wrote 3 monographs, on alchemistry and philosophy which contributed much to philosophy but didn't help to discover the `Philosopher's Stone'.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below

elaborate /i'l?b?rit/; alchemist /'жlkimist/; purifying /'pju:?rifai?/; dishonest /dis'onist/; credulous /'kredjul?s/; admirable /?d'mai?r?bl/; encyclopedist /ensaiklou'pi:dist/; philosopher /fi'los?f?/; disease /di'zi:z/; laboratory /l?'bo:r?tri/; monograph /'mon? gra:f/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-

combinations given below. Use them in the sentences

of your own.

тщательно продуманный; процесс очистки; иметь успех; продолжать упорно работать; заинтересоваться; фальшивое золото; Монетный двор; проба (золота); всесторонне образованный человек; неправильно понять; превращать ч-л в; раскрыть секрет; внести вклад в; открыть `философский камень'.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents.

1. a certain amount of mercury 1. ни к чему не придти (потерпеть неудачу)

2. so-called magic 2. запас знаний

3. to come to nothing 3. действовать на международной арене

4. a store of knowledge 4. его слава продолжала расти

5. credulous 5. Папа Римский

6. dire penalty 6. сделать открытие

7. to operate on an international 7. определенное количество ртути

scale 8. доверчивый

8. to make a discovery 9. так называемой волшебство

9. his fame grew on 10. ужасное наказание

10. the Pope

Exercise 3. Agree or disagree with the following statements.

1. Alchemists wanted to change metals into silver.

2. Many talented scientists were among alchemists.

3. Alchemists carried out their experiments up to the 15th century.

4. Such great scientists as Sir Isaak Newton didn't believe alchemistry.

5. Roger Bacon managed to discover the `Philosopher's stone'.

6. Roger Bacon, a great English encyclopedist, worked in London.

7. He wrote 3 monographs in prison.

Exercise 4. More about word-building:

English nouns can be formed

1) from verbs using the suffixes -er/-or,- ess, - ion, - ance/-ence, - ing, - ment

For example: teach - teacher; exist - existence; educate - education;

begin - beginning; govern - government.

2) from adjectives using the suffixes -(i)ty, -ism

For example: productive - productivity, race - racism

3) from nouns using the siffux -ist

For example: physics - physicist

4) the prefixes in-, un-, im-, dis- give a negative meaning to verbs, adjectives and adverbs

important - unimportant, integrate - disintegrate, complete - incomplete

a) In the text find nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs formed in this way.

b) Give the corresponding verbs to the following nouns:

reaction, participation, production, supporter, establishment, entrance, governess, teaching, opening, development, painter, writer.

c) Form adjectives from the following adjectives using prefixes in-, im-, un-, -dis:

natural, dependent, possible, like, different, mobile, organized, curious, covered

Exercise 5. Translate at sight.

Aluminium is the most abundant metal, but it was not used until a century ago because it is active chemically and difficult to extract. Like iron it is soft, but in contrast to iron and steel, aluminium is very light and more resistant to corrosion. These qualities make it useful for airplanes, trains, automobiles, rockets, and for some constructional purposes.

In the 1940s, magnesium emerged as an important metal. Although it is less abundant in the earth, more chemically active, and harder to extract than aluminium, it is present in sea water and that means there is almost an endless supply of it.

In the space age, the extraordinary properties of titanium have made it the new wonder metal. Lighter and stronger than steel, it is more resistant to corrosion and able to withstand heat.

The remaining major metals are sodium, potassium, and calcium, all too active chemically (they react violently with water) for use in construction.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

The Passive Voice

to be + Part.II

The Passive form of a verb is often used in all scientific writing, because the emphasis in science is usually on the action, not on the person performing the action. If you want to change the tense, change the tense of the verb `to be', Participle II remains unchangeable.

Aspect/ Tense Present Past Future

Indefinite is/are done was/were done will be done

Continuous is/are being done was/were being done -

Perfect have/has been done had been done will have been done

Exercise 1. Change the following sentences from the active to the passive

form. Include a by-phrase if you think the subject of the

active sentence is important to the passive sentences

1. We never saw him in our laboratory. 2. During the years from 1870 to 1876 Edison patented 122 inventions. 3.Workers completed the Panama Canal in 1914. 4. His experiments and inventions covered many sides of human life. 5. Edison did some research work on the principles of flying, and even made a helicopter. 6. They have seen this show. 7. They have adopted the metric system in Britain and made the money system much simpler. 8. The professor is examining our group. 9. The Gulf Stream determines the climate of Great Britain. 10. The Great Fire of 1666 destroyed St.Paul's Cathedral. 11. She has prepared a report for the next meeting of our club. 12. They have crowned English kings and queens in Westminster Abbey for about 1000 years. 13. Sometimes we describe plasma as the fourth state of matter. 14. We can define the atom as the smallest portion of matter.

Exercise 2. Fill in the passive form of the verb in parantheses in

the following sentences.

1. The weight of the planets . . . (to calculate) by Newton as a young man. 2. The concept of relativity . . . (to propose) by Albert Einstein in 1905. 3. Most Cambridge colleges . . . (to found) as schools of theology but in 1750 under the influence of Sir Isaak Newton, mathematics became compulsory and the main subject of study. 4. The first motor car . . . (to make) in 1875by an Austrian Siegfried Marcus. He used the internal combustion engine, which . . . (to perfect) gradually. 5. The earliest motor cars . . . (to build) like horse carriages and an early British company . . . (to call) the Greatest Horseless Carriage Company. 6. The Rolls-Royce motor car long . . . (to know) as the best car in the world. 7. Water . . . (to discover) under the Sakhara Desert. 8. Diamonds . . . (to find) in South Africa in the 19th century. 9. The electric battery . . . (to invent) by Luigi Galvan in 1786. 10. The craters on the moon . . . (to cause) probably by meteors. 11. Gold, silver and copper . . . (to value) for their luster.

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the passive forms.

These tests were conducted on new specimens. 2. The specimens were examined for evidence of secondary cracking. 3. The present study was intended to evaluate the properties of this material. 4. The system is designed to operate at temperatures over 110 C. 5. Solubility was analysed in temperatures ranging from 200-900 C. 6. Methods have also been develped for applying the results of the research. 7. The results of the research are being considered by alternative methods. 8. Nanocrystalline tungsten has been successfully synthesized. 9. An appropriate model is shown here. 10. When silicon was first being considered as an optical material, it was assumed that single crystals will be required for image quality. 11. In foundries producing a small volume of castings, a small amount of metal is usually required. 12. If atoms are deprived of electrons,they cease to be atoms. 13. In fully ionized plasmas the radiation is emitted by the free electrons. 14. The rate of chemical reaction is influenced by a large number of variables. 15. The participants of the conference were told that the furnaces of entirely new design would be put into operation in a few weeks.

Exercise 3. In scientific writing `should' and `must', “can” and “may” appear most frequently in combinations with the passive voice. In each of the following sentences use the passive form of the verb in parentheses.

X-rays must only . . . (to use) when necessary. 2. Temperature can . . . ( to measure) by different types of thermometres. 3. Potassium must . . . (never, to allow) to come in contact with water. 4. The technicians should . . . (to protect) from excessive radiation. 5. The aims of his research may . . . (to declare) at the next seminar. 6. Energy can . . . (to transform) from one type to another. 7. Our earth may … (to warm) by `greenhouse effect'. 8. An atom may … (to combine) with other atoms to form certain stable arrangements of outer electrons. 9. It should … (to remember) that copper-based alloys are all hardened similarly. 10. This information must … (to present) in the form suitable for all parts of the control system. 11. Various methods should … (to use) to make water safe and attractive to the consumer.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

Read the text given below and find the answers to the following questions:

1. What was the population of New York in 1875?

2. Did the population of New York grow fast?

3. How did the Government cope with the problem of the rapid growth of population?

4. When did the first sky-scraper appear?

5. What is the highest sky-scraper of New York?

6. Is New York a multinational city?

7. Why are statictics so impressive?

8. Why is it so difficult to be Mayor of New York?

New York

New York defies description. You can say anything you like about it and always be right; if you listen to different people talking about it they could each be describing a different town. For some, it's a center for art, music and theatre; for others, a city of finance and politics. For writers it's the publishing capital of the world, for manufacturers, a bottomless market, for safe-crackers it's Ali Baba's cave, for everyone it's a city of opportunity.

In 1875 the population of New York was one million; twenty-five years later it was over three and a half million. New inventions were developed to deal with the population expansion. At break-neck speed, New York covered itself with trains, suspension bridges, elevated railways, steam boats and then skyscrapers. The first skyscraper was put up in 1888. It had only thirteen stories, but the next had twenty-two, the Empire State Building- 102, and now the World Trade Center has reached 110. Manhattan solved the space problem by building up. But although the population of New York has stabilized, the city continues to construct and destruct itself. The average lifespan of a Manhattan building is twenty years - some skyscrapers are pulled down after only ten years, while others spring up in only a few weeks. New York is never finished.

If you stop a passing New Yorker and ask where he or she comes from, the chances are that they'll answer “I'm Irish” - or German. In New York, five people out of every eight are effectively foreigners, or children of foreigners. New York has more Jews than Israel, more Italians than the rest of the world - Italy excepted - and more ethnic minorities than anywhere else. Everyday sixty-seven foreign-language newspapers are published here.

Statistics are impressive. New York City has five boroughs and shelters roughly eight million people - sixteen million if you include the suburbs. But each day the city fills up with another four million who work here but live somewhere else. The subway uses 7,000 cars to transport five million people each day. New Yorkers produce 3 kg of garbage per day - that represents 200,000 tonnes to collect every day from 9,000 km of street and avenues. The police force employs 25,000 officers - the equivalent of the population of Monaco. It's not surprising that being mayor of New York is supposed to be the most difficult job in the world.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Complete the statements given below by choosing the right

variant.

1. By the beginning of the 20th century the population of New York had reached

a) two million people b) over three and a half million

c) five million people

2. The first sky-scraper had

a) thirteen stories b) ten stories c) 100 stories

3. Manhattan solved the problem of accomodation by

a) expanding b) extending c) building up

4. Though the population of New York has stabilized the city continues

a) to build up b) to expand c) to construct and distruct itself

5. The population of New York consists of

a) many nations and national minorities b) born Americans

c) mostly of Jews and Italians

Exercise 2. Look at the text and find words and phrases which mean

opposite to

similar build up poor market majority

low speed precisely destroy easy

Exercise 3. Look at the text and find compound words in it. Translate

them into Russian and use in the sentences of your own.

Exercise 4. Arrange the jumbled text given below.

1. The visitor may be photographed astride a stuffed bucking bronco or, on a Victorian tin-type picture, in the authentic costume of the Gold Rush era - a relic of Bygone Days.

2. Founded in 1858 with discovery of gold at the junction of South Platte River and Cherry Creek, Denver rapidly became the supply center for mining camps in nearby mountains. It remains the largest distribution center in the region extending from Canada to Mexico.

3. Today it is a city, where a nineteenth-century past blends, architecturally, with a skyscraping present. The saloons - the Grubstake Inn, the Glory Hole - have reopened their doors to the tourists. One is disguised as a mine, complete with pit-props and sacking. In another, behind “the only original swimming doors in the country”, tinkles an ancient mechanical piano.

4. Denver - the “Mile High City” (from the sea, not the ground) is the “capital” of the Rockies - the terminus, a century ago, of the Colorado Gold Rush. In those pioneer days it was a rough shack settlement, where it was usual enough to see a man being hanged in the public square, after a trial by the citizens, for murdering his mate with an axe.

5. Since World War II, Denver has become center for smokeless industries. A tourist mecca, it is a gateway to vast recreational areas, including major winter sports resorts and more mountains than Switzerland. Until recently, buildings were limited to 12 stories. In the last 20 years or so buildings of up to 42 stories have been erected, with a 50-story building started in 1970.

Exercise 5. Speak on some other American city. Use the words and phrases from the two texts.

Oral Practice

Asking for Information. Hotel Accomodation

Patterns

Questions Replies

1. How much does a single room cost? 1. It costs 29 pounds.

2. And a double room? 2. We've got a double room with twin

beds for 39 pounds and with a

double bed just for the same price.

3. Have the rooms got private 3. Yes, the rooms have bathrooms.

bathrooms?

4. Do you offer full board or half 4. Sorry, only bed and breakfast.

board?

5.Do you offer English breakfast 5. Both. And there is a car park.

or continental one?

6. Can I make a reservation? 6. - Yes, certainly.

- No, sorry, we are full.

7. Do I have to register? 7. - Yes, please. Here are your keys.

Exercise 1. Learn the dialogues by heart and make dialogues of your

own using the patterns.

Peter: Hello, is it the Magnolia Hotel?

Receptionist: Yes, it is. Can I help you?

Peter: Yes, could I make a reservation?

Receptionist: Certainly, sir. Do you want a single or a double room?

Peter: I'd like a single room, en suite, for three days starting from

tomorrow.

Receptionist: That's fine. You are welcome.

Ben: How were your holidays?

Susan: Fine, thanks.

Ben: Was the accomodation satisfactory?

Susan: Yes, I had a single, ensuite.

Ben: And what about the food?

Susan: It was half-board, the English breakfast and an excellent dinner.

I didn't need a lunch in fact. You know these huge English

breakfasts of bacon and eggs, beans, mushrooms and the like.

Ben: And how about the price?

Susan: It was quite reasonable.

Exercise 2. Role-play: you want to stay somewhere in the country.

You don't know anything about the hotels there. Ring

the Accomodation Agency to ask for help.

Exercise 3. Make a dialogue between a receptionist and a customer at

a two-star and five-star hotels. Ask about all the facilities

(a bar, a restaurant, a swimming pool, etc.) they can offer.

Unit 4

Text 1

Silverware and Plate Industry

While reading the text we shall return to Sheffield - the biggest centre of British metallurgy.

The story of silverware and the story of the highly-prized Old Sheffield plate are inextricably linked. Two hundred and fifty years ago cutlery manufacture was the only important industry in Sheffield and knife handles were the only objects made in silver.

As a result of mid-eighteenth century pioneering work by Thomas Boulsover, a Sheffield cutler, and Joseph Hancock who developed a method of plating a copper ingot with silver by fusion, a new industry came into being.

The plated ingot was rolled as if it were one metal, and by the 1760's several firms were engaged in the manufacture of Old Sheffield Plate tableware. Early examples are now coveted collectors items.

Sheffield manufacturers found a ready market: a growing middle class who turned to the cheaper, beautiful articles which resembled silver and were almost as durable.

Machinery invented for the mass production of Sheffield Plate turned out to be suitable for the economical production of silver tableware and from this a sterling silver industry sprang up.

In 1773 an Act of Parliament granted the town its own Assay Office: the Sheffield mark - a crown. After 1904 the Office was also authorised to assay gold on which its mark is the York rose. The present Assay Office is in Portobello Street.

The silverware trade is now the largest industry carried on in Sheffield with non-ferrous netals; the emphasis is on specialist, high grade workmanship and two well-known pieces regularly made here are the Grand National trophy and Lonsdale Belts awarded to the winners of British boxing title fights.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below

silverware /'silv?w??/; inextricably /in'ekstrik?bli/; coveted /'k/\vitid/; assay /?`sei/; authorized /'o: ??raizd/; trophy / `troufi/; award / ?`wo:d/

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-

combinations given below and use them in the sentences

of your own.

столовое серебро (изделия из серебра); ножовщик; ножевые товары; медная болванка; напоминать серебро; пробирная палата; уполномоченный; награждать; оборудование (станки); основное внимание уделяется.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the

sentences of your own.

1. plate 1. плакировать путем сплавления

2. inextricably linked 2. появилась новая промышленность

3. pioneering work 3. сложным образом связаны друг с другом

4. to plate by fusion 4. мастерство высокого класса

5. a new industry came into 5. Белая роза (эмблема династии Йорков -

being королевской династии 15в)

6. high grade workmanship 6. изыскательская работа

7. York rose 7. столовое серебро

8. Grand National trophy 8. высшая награда боксеров - профессионалов

9. Lonsdale Belt - богато украшенный пояс, вручается чемпиону

Великобритании, завоевавшему это звание три

раза подряд

9. приз победителю ежегодных крупнейших

крупнейших скачек с препятствиями

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. When did the story of Old Sheffield silverware and plate begin? 2. What method was developed in the middle of the 18th century? 3. Why did the plate industry develop so rapidly? 4. Does Sheffield have its own Assay Office? 5. Which two well-known National trophies are made in Sheffield?

Exercise 4. From the choices given choose a word or phrase which could be

substituted for the underlined word or phrase without changing

its meaning.

1. These two stories are closely linked

a) connected b) mixed c) integrated

2. A new industry came into being in the middle of the 18th century.

a) developed b) sprang up c) continued

3. A growing middle class wanted to buy cheaper, beautiful tableware.

a) extending b) developing c) increasing

4. The Assay office was authorized to assay both silver and gold.

a) was allowed b) was given the right c) was ready

5. In Sheffield two well-known trophies are made.

a)respectable b) popular c) famous

Exercise 5. More about word -building: Adjectives.

1. Adjectives can be formed from nouns, using the suffixes: -ous, -al, -ic

danger - dangerous period - periodical economy - economic

2. Adjectives can be formed from verbs using the suffix -ing

exite - exiting

3. Form adjectives from the following verbs and nouns:

poison, interest, trade, finance, educate, courage, geography, glory, partonize

4. Define the meaning of the following words:

metal, metallurgy, metallist, metalize, metallic, metallography, metallurgy.

Exercise 6. Translate at sight

1. When James Watt invented the steam engine in the latter part of the eighteenth century, the whole industrial scene changed.. Steam power made possible the `Industrial Revolution' in Britain. Vast quantities of metal were needed for the railways pioneered by the Stevensons, and the huge iron ships and bridges of Brunel. In Sheffield, the centre of the iron and steel industry, the output of metals multiplied fifty times in thirty-five years.

During this expansion, improved tools were invented for use in the factories and many steam-powered tools were invented and developed.

2. In 1886, H.C.Sorby brought to perfection his long and painstaking work with the microscope and finally launched the new science of metallography. Many metallurgists have since worked in Sheffield and passed on ideas and experiments which have played an important part in the stirring record of the production of steels.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Reported Speech

There are three types of Reported Speech.

1. Reported Statements.

If the predicate of principal clause is in the past tense, the predicate of a reported clause “moves one tense back”.

present -> past

past -> past perfect

She said:” I am going there.” -> She said she was going there.

I said:” He was there.” -> I said he had been there.

They said:” We haven't finished it yet.” ->They said they hadn't finished it yet.

Note: The “one tense back” rule is not used:

a)“I hate his job,” I told him -> I told him I hate his job. (I still hate his job)

b) when some axiom is reported:

The pupil knew that the earth is round.

c) when the exact time of an event is stated:

She said she was born in 1979.

2. Reported Questions

a) “the one tense back” rule is used in reported questions in the same way it is used in reported statements.

“Why are you going there?” she asked ->She asked why I was going there.

I asked:”Where have you been?” -> I asked where he had been.

b) The word order of a reported questions is direct, the auxiliaries do, does, did are not used. To report a general question if or whether is used.

“Did you go to that park?” she asked -> She asked if/whether I had gone to that park.

In reported statements and questions it is necessary to change personal, possessive pronouns and adverbial modifiers of time and place.

this -> that here -> there

last time -> the previous time yesterday -> the day before

now -> then tomorrow -> the next day

ago -> before

He said: ”We shall go there tomorrow.” -> He said they would go there the

next day.

3. Reported Commands

Reported commands follow the pattern:

subject + predicate + indirect object + infinitive

She told them to help me.

They asked me to show them around the city.

Note: the negative command:

They asked me not to invite her to the party

Note: Some other verbs used for reporting:

advise, ask, add, explain, remind, agree, point out, refuse, promise

Exercise 1. Report the following statements, commands and questions.

1. `What are you doing here?' she asked. 2. `When did you pass the exam?' he asked. 3. `I've left some books on your table,' said Paul. 4. `I am dead sure I have seen a flying saucer,' said the man. 5. Mother told me,'Please, work harder, otherwise you'll fail.' 6. Another passenger came in and said, `Is this seat taken?' 7. `Let's take your tape recorder to the party.' she offered. 8. `Yesterday at 2 o'clock I was working on the paper.' she stated. 9. `I booked a double room on the second floor.' said Mr.Jones. 10. She complained,'They've changed much since I saw them in 1990.' 11. `Must you do it all tonight? Couldn't you leave some for tomorrow?' mother asked. 12. The conductor announced,'Passengers must not lean out of the window.' 13. The student answered,'The atom is the smallest portion of matter.' 14. `Did you sleep well last night?' Bill asked. 15. She asked,'Do you know that dynamics and kinematics are branches of mechanics?' 16. The lecturer said,'The steels of Sheffield are the raw materials of the great tool industries of the city.'

Exercise 2. Use one of the introductory verbs given below to report

each of the following sentences. Each of the verbs should

be used only once.

ask beg advise urge warn encourage forbid invite suggest recommend

1. `Please, sit down and make yourself at home,' - our hostess said. 2. `Don't touch the dog.' my friend said. 3. `You really must consult your lawyer. It could be very serious.' my brother said. 4. `You should go there, they can help you.' she said. 5. `If you are eating in MacDonalds, try their apple pie. It's delicious.' they told us. 6. `No one is to use a dictionary during the test.' the teacher said. 7. `Please, don't forget to let me know that you've arrived safely.' my aunt said. `I'll be worried if you don't phone me.' 8. `May we come in?' said the twins. 9. `Try the corner shop. It is usually open on Sunday.' the man said. 10. “Go on, enter for the exam.' he said, `You've nothing to lose and it will be a good experience for you.'

Exercise 3. Select the correct form from the choices given in parentheses.

We realized that might (doesn't, didn't) always make right. 2. Miss Perkins said that she (doesn't, didn't) want to discuss the matter. 3. We heard on the radio tonight that the summit (will take place, would take place) in Washington DC. 4. Of course we knew that crime (is, was) forbidden. 5.Sue came in and wanted to know if all the guests (arrived, had arrived) yet. 6. Mrs. Gordon said that she (wants, wanted) more time to think it over. 7. She asked if I (can, could) describe the system to her. 8. Joe said that his friends (decided, had decided) to stay in town for two more days

Text 2

The US Government

Pre- reading Task

1. What do you know about the political system of the US?

2. Give a definition of a federal system.

3. In what way are the indirect elections held?

4. What is the term of servitude in the Senate and House of Representatives?

5. Who can be elected a President of the USA?

The Government is a federal system. Individual states hold sovereignty over their territory and have rights that are not reserved by the federal government. Each state has its own legislature and a directly elected governor. The federal president is indirectly elected. Voters in each state determine by a majority who they would choose as president; they then send delegates to vote according to that choice. The delegates' votes determine who the president is. The directly elected federal legislature has two houses: the House of Representatives, whose members serve two-year terms; and the Senate, whose members serve six-year terms. There is a separate judicial branch.

The Senate consists of 2 members from each state, elected for 6 years, one-third retiring or re-elected every year, so two senators from the same state never finish their terms at the same time.

The House of Representatives consists of over 400 members elected every second year. They all finish their terms of office at the same time.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country. The President appoints its members for life, but his choice must be approved by the Senate.

The executive power is in the hands of a President and his Cabinet. He must be a natural-born citizen, resident in the country for 14 years, and at least 35 years old. He is elected for 4 years, every leap year on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November.

While most Americans are very proud of their country, they may openly criticize the government (or even the president). Freedom of speech is carefully protected by the people and the constitution. Americans value humor and like to laugh at themselves and the country's weaknesses. Indeed, a good sense of humor is valued. Americans openly share their opinions on a variety of subjects. They ask questions and challenge other people's opinions. Public criticism is not considered improper, unless it is very personal.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Agree or disagree with the following statements.

1. Individual states of the US do not have sovereignty.

2. The federal president is indirectly elected.

3. The Senate is elected for 4 years.

4. There are no re-elections to the Senate every year.

5. Members of the House of Representatives are elected every second year.

6. The Supreme Court is the highest juridical power in the USA.

7. The legislative power is in the hands of a President and his Cabinet.

8. Personal public criticism is considered improper in America

Exercise 2. Look through the text and find the word or word-combination which means:

1. a form of government in which sovereign power is divided between a central authority and a number of constituent political units;

2. to express an opinion about a candidate for office;

3. a member of a Senate;

4. one who makes his home in a particular place;

5. they who put into effect the country's laws;

6. to appreciate smth;

7. open criticism;

8. to demand for an explanation.

Exercise 3. Enlarge on the following quotations.

1. Self-criticism is a mark of social maturity. (Gore Vidal)

2. Being a politician is a poor profession. Being a public servant is a noble one. (Herbert Goover)

3. No government can continue good but under the control of people. (Thomas Jefferson)

Exercise 4. Arrange the jumbled text given below.

1. Atlanta, the capital and the largest city of Georgia is the leading commercial, industrial and distribution centre of the south-eastern United States. Products include automobiles, airplanes, chemicals, furniture, steel, paper, fertilizers and processed foods.

2. Dallas is the second largest city in Texas. Today the city's economy rests primarily on banking, insurance, electronics, the aerospace industry, cotton, oil , state and federal employment.

3. There are some centres in the USA where almost all sorts of products are made and all industries are developed.

4. South of Houston is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Manned Spaceflight Centre, a big complex for astronaut training, equipment, testing, and flight-control centre for Project Apollo.

5. Fishing, lumbering and in recent years, the manufacturing of giant jet planes have made Seattle the north-west's most important economic centre. World War II made the city a centre of aircraft manufacturing and shipbuilding. Other important industries today are food processing, chemical products, metal goods, machinery, and aerospace production. Seattle is the nucleus of an important military-industrial complex, with the Boeing Company being the largest employer in the area. The Boeing heavy bomber airplane became a symbol of Seattle.

6. Houston is the largest city in the South, heart of the nation's largest petro-chemical complex, which turns natural gas into fertilizer, rubber, vinyl. The city ranks first in the nation as a refinery centre, first in the manufacture and distribution of petroleum equipment.

Oral Practice

Agreeing and Disagreeing. Expressing Doubt.

Patterns

Questions Replies

1.Do you think there is too much 1. - Yes, I agree.

traffic in Moscow? - Yes, I do.

2. Don't you think shops should 2. - Yes, I completely agree with you.

be open on Sunday? - I don't know.

3. Wouldn't you agree that people 3. - I don't completely agree with you,

don't care much about the I'm afraid.

environment? - Right you are. I'm of the same opinion.

4. What's your opinion of super- 4. - I don't really know.

markets? - I haven't really thought about it.

- I suppose they are a good idea.

5. Do you think he must be 5. - I disagree.

punished? - Oh, yes, you are quite right.

6. Do you think women shouldn't 6. - I don't think it matters.

be allowed to drive? - Oh, no that's ridiculous.

7. What do you think of pop music? 7. - In my opinion it is awful

8. How do you feel about . . .? 8. - On the one hand it is . . .,

but on the other hand . . .

9. What are your views on . . .? 9. - I think that . . .

Exercise 1. Learn the dialogues by heart and make your own

dialogues using the patterns.

Peter - Well, Susan, what do you think of modern art?

Susan - I like it. It is so colourful, a good example of our colourful times.

And how about you?

Peter - Yes, I completely agree with you, though some people hate it.

Susan - I don't think it matters. Opinions differ, you know.

Kate - Do you think old people should live with their children?

Ben - Well, it depends. Sometimes it can make life difficult and how do

you feel about it?

Kate - On the one hand it is a good idea. It makes life cheaper and more

convenient for older people, but on the other hand sometimes

people are not as free as they would like to be.

Ben - Yes, I quite agree with you.

Exercise 2. Agree or disagree with these opinions. Then interview

your partner. What does he/she think about it?

1. People should retire at 55.

2. Children should start school when they are 5.

3. Parents shouldn't punish their children.

4. Parents should know everything about their children.

5. Young people should have their own home at 18.

6. Old people should live with their sons and daughters.

7. Parents should give their children everything they want.

8. Education in Russia is on a high level.

9. The English are very temperamental people.

10. The Russian countryside is very beautiful.

11. Russian television is very good.

Exercise 3. Listen to the joke “A Holiday in Great Britain”.

Answer the questions.

Chapter 4

Alloys

Unit 1

Text 1

Bronze and Brass

About 6,000 years ago people discovered that copper could be made harder if mixed with tin. This alloy is called bronze. It was so widely used for many years that this period of time became known as the Bronze Age.

If you had been a soldier in Ancient Greece you would have had to stop in battle to straighten your bronze sword. But bronze was a great improvement on copper, which bends even more easily. Most pure metals are weak and soft. But two soft metals mixed together make a harder metal called an alloy. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. It was the first alloy.

Tin was the fifth metal discovered by man. It is a soft whitish substance. Various proportions of the two metals produced different qualities in the bronze. Most early metal-workers used about eight parts of copper to one of tin. Because weapons made of bronze were harder and stronger than those of copper, tin became very important. However, there was little tin to be found in western Asia - still the centre of the metal-working world. Mostly it was found in Europe, and the merchants of Troy, who brought their goods to Europe, began loading their boats with tin on their return journeys. In England, tin was discovered and mined in Cornwall and was a main export for a long time.

When zinc was discovered it was used to produce an important alloy in combination with copper. This alloy was brass, a hard-wearing, yellow metal which was valued more than bronze. The exact date of discovery is uncertain but it was probably about 200 BC. Brass is often mentioned in the Old Testament, most of which was written before zinc was discovered and therefore when there could not have been any brass. The bibical metal must have been either bronze or copper, and the word `brass' is the result of a translator's error at some time. So, bronze and brass were the first alloys - man-made metals.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

straighten /'streit?n/; Asia /'ei??/; Europe /'ju?r?p/; load /loud/; brass /bra:s/; export /'ekspo:t/; biblical /'biblik ?l/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word- combinations given below.

большинство чистых металлов; сплав; мягкий металл беловатого цвета; оружие, сделанное из бронзы; Бронзовый век; износостойкость; упоминать; ошибка; добывать олово.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given below

with their Russian equivalents.

1. mixed with tin 1. либо бронза, либо медь

2. return journey 2. до нашей эры

3. a main export 3. в сочетании с

4. BC (before Christ) 4. в сочетании с оловом

5. the Old Testament 5. обратное путешествие

6. in combination with 6. Ветхий Завет

7. either bronze or copper 7. основной предмет экспорта

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions

1. Why was bronze a great improvement on copper? 2. What does bronze consist of? 3. Where were the major tin deposits located? 4. What alloy was produced of zinc in combinations with copper? 5. Why was brass valued more than bronze?

Exercise 4. Look through the text and find the words which mean

the same as:

find out; arms; so; in combination with; way back; mistake;

advance; principle.

Exercise 5. More about word-building: Adverbs.

Rule: to change an adjective into an adverb add -ly:

close - closely; easy - easily; heroic - heroically

Certain other words have the same form whether they are adjectives or adverbs:

a fast train - it came fast

a short time - he stopped short

an early bird - he rose early

a hard worker - he works hard

a close decision - he came close

Change the following adjectives into adverbs:

firm; usual; punctual; hard; manual; graphic; early; economic; normal; heavy; synthetic; extravagant; careful; wonderful; fast.

Exercise 6. Translate at sight.

1. Shaping of Metals. The last stage in smelting usually involves the casting of the metal into a mould. This mould may be shaped to the form desired in the finished article, the process being known as founding or casting. On the other hand the metal may be cast into a mould of simple form such as an ingot for subsequent shaping by such mechanical working methods as forging, rolling, extrusion, etc.

2. Requirements for blast furnace performance have increased dramatically over the last 15 years. Productivity and daily output must be high: downtime must be minimal. Operating and maintenance cost must be as low as possible. Campaign life of a blast furnace can last as long as 15 years nowadays, without any major repair.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Infinitive

Infinitive Active Passive

Simple to give to be given

Perfect to have given to have been given

Continuous to be giving __

Perfect Continuous to have been giving __

In a sentence Infinitive can be:

1) the subject To know him is to love him.

2) a part of a predicate I can play tennis.

3) an attribute There is nobody to help me.

4) an object Where did you learn to speak English?

5) an adverbial modifier You are clever enough to understand it.

The Continuous Infinitive is often used after the verbs: appear; happen; pretend; seem. It is also possible after: agree; arrange; decide; determine; hope; manage; plan and auxiliary verbs.

He seems to be following us.

The Perfect Infinitive is possible after: appear; hope; pretend; seem and auxiliary verbs.

He should have helped her.

Infinitive is used without `to'' after:

- auxiliary verbs We shall help you.

- modal verbs May I come in?

- the verbs expressing senses I heard her sing once.

- `let' (предоставлять), Let me do it myself.

- `make' (заставлять) He made us get up early.

- `help' He will help you do it.

- `nothing but', `can't help but' I could not help but say it.

- `why' and `why not' Why not go to the country?

Exercise 1. Use the infinitives with or without `to'.

1. I think you must . . . do this exercise without a dictionary. 2. What makes you . . . think so. 3. She came up to the door . . . open it. 4. I'm awfully glad . . . have met you. 5. Why not . . . go and see him one of these days? 6. Have you ever heard her . . . sing? 7. It is the only thing . . . do. 8. Why should you . . . go there? 9. They don't allow me . . . smoke here. 10. These are the letters . . . be typed tomorrow. 11. Are you sure he will help us . . . do it? 12. Do not make me . . . do it, I'm awfully short of time. 13. You were right when you told me not . . . leave the party. I am so glad . . . have met her. 14. You don't have . . . worry, I'll . . . do it for you.

Exercise 2. Open the brackets using the correct form of the Infinitive.

1. I'm really pleased (to see) you here. 2. Here are the instructions (to carry out). 3. I'd like (to lie) in the sun right now. 4. I asked (to inform) as soon as there was any news. 5. She didn't know what (to do). 6. When he looked at the elderly lady he remembered (to see) her the day before. 7. He is not (to trust). 8. I am sorry (to keep) you waiting. 9. I am so sorry (to miss) that evening. 10. The girl seems (to sleep).

Exercise 3. Use one of the infinitives in brackets, give two variants

where possible and explain the difference.

1. They want (to discuss/ to have discussed) this project. 2. They were (to come/ to have come) by this time already. 3. We must hurry not (to be late/ to have been late) for the party. 4. The man seemed (to study/ to be studying) me attentively. 5. The only sound (to hear/ to be heard) was the ticking of the old clock downstairs. 6. They are glad (to invite/ to have invited) you for the conference. 7. He is lucky (to be visiting/ to have visited) so many countries. 8. Children like (to tell/ to be told) fairy tales. 9. Is there anything else (to tell/ to be told) him about ? 10. I'm glad (to be given/ to have been given) this book.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian, paying attention to the form of the Infinitive.

The cause of the increasing use of metals is to be found in their characteristic properties. 2. A computer software programme has been developed to conduct an effective analysis. 3. In the present study this type of alloys have been shown to have better properties. 4. The first metals to be used by primitive men were those that are found free in nature. 5. In considering the chemical properties of metals, the first point to be noted is that they vary widely in degree of chemical activity. 6. Part of the initial motivation to study this problem was to determine how many atoms are required for a tiny lump of material to attain the properties of the bulk solid. 7. To produce desired shapes, such as bars or sheets, the rolling is usually done in two or more rolling operations. 8. Ductility and malleability are qualitative forms describing the relative ability of metals to stand plastic deformation. 9. To refine the structure of the metal is one of the primary reasons for hot mechanical working of steel. 10. The two main reasons for forging steels are to reduce the block of metal to approximately the dimensions of the finished article.

Text 2

Results of Immigration

Pre- reading Task

1. Read the text given below and find the answers to the following questions:

a) What lies in America's diversity?

b) Where did the `old' immigrants tend to settle?

c) Where did the so-called `new' immigrants settle?

d) Did the immigrants assimilate or did they preserve their culture?

e) Immigrants have accelerated the economic growth of the US, haven't they? How?

f) Is unemployment a direct result of immigration?

The “roots of American diversity” lie in immigration. America is diversity. Thus both the richness of the heritage and the problems the Americans face today - and the keys to the solution of tomorrow - lie in this diversity.

There are also changing factors in the patterns of immigration. When both the colonial European and “old” wave immigrants came, there was a push to leave the seaboard and go to the west. The so-called “new” immigrants coming in the late nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century, tended to stay in the cities. It is true, however, that the “nordics” that came during that period, settled in the Mid-West. Today's wave of immigrants go to all states, but they tend to congregate on just six: New York, California, Florida, New Jersey, Illinois and Texas. That has rather profound implications for the political process.

Earlier groups suffered through some loss of their cultural heritage. To some it was no loss. But the vastness of the country, an economic system that encouraged the learning of English for the marketplace, and a political system that encouraged naturalization and voting in English - made for assimilation. The problem in this area today is that while the economic push is there, the political system is allowing voting in other (Spanish) languages. It could be a trend that will have culture-altering effects on the nation.

America's emergence as a major power, coincided with the major waves of immigration. This is not to say that it could not have developed without, for example, the “new” immigrants. But it would have been without the rapidity. The immigrants brought skills, or a strong body, at a time that the industrialization did not require excessive training. The great expansion of the period 1865 to 1910 would not have been possible without them. In fact, the Americans often take a very limited view of their role. For not only were they laborers, but also the consumers: they were a market. Most immigrants came at the prime age in life to join the work force. So the society as a whole did not have the costs of “rearing them to a working age.”

It has been demonstrated in the current wave of illegal aliens that immigrants do not take jobs other Americans want. Their presence here is an absolute must for society. They do not take jobs away from “older” Americans during depressions.

Contrary to a widely held view not all immigrants begin at the bottom and work their way to the top. Some start at the top as noted by the President's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization when it drew up the following list:

“No roster of leading Americans in business, science, arts and the professions could be complete without the names of many immigrants. In our history the following aliens may be mentioned, among many, who became outstanding industrialists: Andrew Carnegie (Scot) in the steel industry; John Jacob Astor (German) in the fur industry; the DuPonts (French) of the munitions and chemical industry; Charles L.Fleischmann (Hungarian) of the yeast business; David Sarnoff (Russian) of the radio industry; and William S.Knudsen (Danish) of the automobile industry.

Immigrant scientists and inventors . . . whose genius has benefited the United States are Albert Einstein (German) in physics; Michael Pupin (Serbian) in electricity; Enrico Fermi (Italian) in atomic research; John Ericsson (Swedish) who invented the ironclad ship and the screw propeller; Guiseppe Bellanca (Italian) and Igor Sikorsky (Russian) who made outstanding contributions to airplane development; John A.Udden (Swedish) who was responsible for opening the Texas oil fields; Lucas P.Kyrides (Greek), industrial chemistry; David Thomas (Welsh) who invented the hot blast furnace; Alexanger Graham Bell (Scot) who invented the telephone; Conrad Huber (Russian) who invented the flashlight; and Otto Mergenthaler (German) who invented the linotype machine ..

The list is endless for Americans are all immigrants.”

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. There are some general statements about American immigration.

For each statement give as many details as you can (examples,

reasons, results, descriptions). Include only details directly

related to each statement.

1. There are changing factors in the pattern of immigration.

2. Earlier groups have suffered through some loss of their cultural heritage.

3. Immigrants have contributed much to the US economic development.

Exercise 2. Do you agree with the author of this article?

Give reasons for your point of view.

Exercise 3. Choose the word or phrase which best completes each

sentence.

1. It had . . . implications for political development.

a) deep b) profound c) serious d) vague

2. I took a course in English with a(n) . . . to work as an interpretor.

a) intention b) purpose c) aim d) obstacle

3. The problems we . . . today are the direct result of your former mistakes.

a) come across b) meet c) face d) cope with

4. The society has no . . . of “rearing immigrants to a working age.”

a) expenditures b) costs c) spendings d) finance

5. My former colleagues . . . me to take this course by promising a good job afterwards.

a) encourage b) advise c) consult d) impose

6. The government has spent $ 1 million on an advertising . . . to encourage energy conservation.

a) promotion b) operation c) enterprise d) campaign

7. It is . . . to work abroad without an official permission.

a) against regulations b) unloyal c) immoral d) illegal

8. It's only a small flat but it . . . my needs perfectly.

a) supplies b) fills c) meets d) settles

Oral Practice

Curriculum Vitae. A Job Interview

A Curriculum Vitae (CV) is a kind of autobiography an applicant for a job should present. Usually the date of the last job is given before educational background.

Curriculum Vitae

Name: Patricia Flynch

Date of birth: 5 April 1968

Nationality: British

Address: 11 High Street, Ramsgate EH3 2LM, Kent, England

tel 01282-448-5612

1991 - 1994 Sheffield Silver-works, engineer

1986 - 1990 B. Eng (Honours), Imperial College of Science, Technology

and Medicine

1990 - 1991 London Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Diploma in

Public Relations

1994 to present National Trust Fund. In charge of relations with European

agencies

Windows and Excel user

Fluent French and fair German

Driver's Licence

Personal details: married, with one child

Exercise 1. Write your own CV, the CVs of your friends or parents.

Exercise 2. Here is a sample of a business interview. Learn it by heart

and make an interview of your own.

Interviewer: Who do you work for now, Ms Flynch?

Ms Flynch: The National Trust Fund.

Interviewer: How long have you worked for them?

Ms Flynch: I've worked for them for 3 years.

Interviewer: And what did you do before joining the National Trust?

Ms Flynch: I worked as an engineer for Sheffield silver-works.

Interviewer: Have you got any experience in organizing conferences?

Ms Flynch: Yes, I have actually. Why?

Interviewer: Your future job will require a lot of organizing meetings and

conferences.

Exercise 4. Interview possible applicants for the following positions.

Make CVs which would suit the requirements.

Editor Sales Manager

up to 45 male, 25 - 40

degree in Linguistics University degree

PC trained PC trained

knowledge of Italian/English fluent English

over 5 years experience 3 years experience in sales

salary $ 500 + bonus salary $ 1000 + %

Unit 2

Text 1

Basic Metallurgy of Cast Iron

The term `cast iron', like the term `steel', identifies a large family of ferrous alloys. Cast irons primarily are alloys of iron that contain more than 2% carbon and form from 1 to 3% silicon. Wide variations in properties can be achieved by varying the balance between carbon and silicon, by alloying with various metallic or nonmetallic elements, and by varying melting, casting and heat treating practices.

Cast irons, as the name implies, are intended to be cast to shape rather than formed in the solid state. Cast irons have low melting temperatures, are very fluid when molten, do not form undesirable surface films when poured, and undergo slight to moderate shrinkage during solidification and cooling. However, cast irons have relatively low impact resistance and ductility, which may limit their use.

Mechanical properties of cast irons - especially strength, ductility, and modulus of elasticity - depend strongly on structure and distribution of microstructural constituents. Physical properties such as thermal conductivity and damping capacity are also strongly influenced by microstructure.

The four basic types of cast iron are white iron, gray iron, ductile iron and malleable iron. White iron and gray iron derive their names from the appearances of their respective fracture surfaces: white iron exhibits a white, crystalline fracture surface, and gray iron exhibits a gray fracture surface with exceedingly tiny facets. Ductile iron derives its name from the fact that, in the as-cast form, it exhibits measurable ductility. By contrast, neither white nor gray iron exhibits significant ductility in a standard tensile test. Malleable iron is cast as white iron, then “malleablized” - that is, heat treated to impart ductility to an otherwise exceedingly brittle material.

Besides the four basic types, there are other specific forms of cast iron to which special names have been applied. Chilled iron is white iron that has been produced by cooling very rapidly through the solidification temperature range. An area of the casting that solidifies at a rate intermediate between those of chilled iron and gray iron, and which exhibits microstructural and fracture-surface features of both types, is known as mottled iron. Compacted graphite cast iron (also known as vermicular iron) has a structure intermediate between those of gray iron and ductile iron.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below.

identify /ai'dentifai/; constituents /k?n'stitju?nts/; appearance /?`pi?r?ns/; surface

/'s?:fis/; exhibit /ig'zibit/; tensile /'tensail/; malleablized / m?li?`blaizd/; intermediate / int?`mi:dj?t/; graphite /'grж fait/; vermicular /v?:'mikjul?/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word

combinations given below and use them in the

sentences of your own.

большое разнообразие свойств; равновесие; литье; в твердом состоянии; отвердение; охлаждение; теплопроводимость; амортизация; белый чугун; серый литейный чугун; растяжение; наделять свойствами; температура отвердения.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the

sentences of your own.

1. cast iron 1. закаленный (отбеленный) чугун

2. fluid when molten 2. половинчатый (о чугуне)

3. ductile iron 3. их имя происходит от

4. malleable iron 4. чугун (продукт вторичной плавки)

5. chilled iron 5. жидкий (текучий) в расплавленном

состоянии

6. the solidification temperature 6. их название происходит

7. mottled iron 7. ковкий (тягучий) чугун

8. they derive their names from 8. температура отвердевания

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. How can the properties of cast irons be changed? 2. What are the characteristics of cast irons? 3. What do mechanical properties of cast irons depend on? 4. Name the four basic types of cast iron. 5. Are there any other specific forms of cast iron?

Exercise 4. More about word-building: Prefixes.

In the text given above find the words with prefixes: un-; under-; inter-; im-. Define their meanings if:

un- = not; lack of; do opposite of; release from:

do - undo = не делать

under- = beneath; lower; insufficiently:

developed - underdeveloped = плохо развитый, недоразвитый

inter- = between:

related - interrelated = взаимосвязанный

im- = in, into, against, over:

impregnate = насыщать

Here are the meanings of some words. Fill each blank with the most appropriate word.

undersell - to sell at a lower price

intervene - to come between

underpayment - bad, insufficient payment

immigrate - to move to a foreign country as a permanent resident

interval - a period between two events

1. A lot of Protestants . . . to America, because the Catholic Church was severely following them. 2. Because they buy in larger quantities at lower prices, chain stores are usually able to . . . goods to small shop-owners. 3. During the … the students had their lunch in the university canteen. 4. Because of permanent .. . . she decided to quit the job. 5. The summer vacation . . . between the close of one school year and the beginning of the next.

Exercise 5. Translate at sight

Uranium. The heaviest of all elements, a radio-active metal used for nuclear power production.

Cadmium. Used to electro-plate iron for rust protection. Also used for control rods in the atomic reactors of nuclear power stations.

Chromium. Used to give a shiny plating to other metals, and used in alloys of steel to produce stainless steel.

Cobalt. Used in the manufacture of steel cutting-tools. It also produces the blue used in pottery such as the famous `Sevres' products.

Magnesium. Mainly used in the production of strong, light alloys such as duralumin. Also used for photographers flash bulbs. It burns in air with a brilliant, white flame.

Task 3.

Listening Comprehension

Listen to the lecture and answer the following questions

1. How many metals are used now?

2. What are the eight most widely used metals?

3. Why can't other metals be regarded as very important engineering materials?

Task 4.

Focus on Grammar

Participle

Present Participle (I) - ing

Active Passive

Simple giving being given

Perfect having given having been given

Past Participle (II) -ed (III form of irregular verbs)

open - opened give - given

Past Participle always has a passive meaning.

1. Present Participles can be used as adjectives to describe an action which is still happening.

They watched the burning forest. Они наблюдали за горящим лесом.

На русский язык переводится причастием, деепричастием, определительным или обстоятельственным придаточным предложением.

2. Past Participles can be used as adjectives to describe the result of an action that has happened.

Тhe completed work was given to the teacher. Завершенная работа была передана преподавателю.

Обычно переводится причастием прошедшего времени или страдательным причастием.

3. Participles are often used in participle clauses to describe two actions that happen

a) at the same time: She sat by the fire reading a book.

He went to the party very well dressed.

b) one after another: Opening the bag she took out a purse.

Caught by the boy, the bird tried to fly away.

c) two actions that happen one because of another:

Not knowing what to do I just waited.

4. The subject of a participle need not be the same as the subject of the following verb, but in this case the participle must follow its noun/pronoun. This construction is not connected with the subject of a sentence and has the function of an adverbial modifier:

The day being fine, we decided to go swimming.

Так как день был прекрасным, мы решили искупаться.

Pure iron ranks ninth among the metals in degree of malleability, gold being the most malleable metal known.

По степени ковкости железо занимает девятое место среди металлов, причем золото является самым ковким из известных металлов.

Эти обороты называются независимыми причастными оборотами и переводятся на русский язык придаточными предложениями времени, причины, уступительными, условными с соответствующими союзами. Иногда могут переводиться самостоятельными предложениями с сочинительными союзами причем, а, и и т.д. При этом всегда необходимо помнить о контексте и общем смысле высказывания.

Exercise 1. Use simple or perfect forms of Present Participle.

1. She was sitting in the arm-chair, (to look) through a newspaper. 2. (To get) a letter from an unknown lady, I decided to invite her for a lunch. 3. (To enter) the room he suddenly saw that there were several unknown people in it. 4. Mother stood (to wave) her hand until we drove away. 5. Every day I see them (to pass) the house. 6. Romeo (to believe) that Julia was dead, decided to kill himself. 7. (To be) there twice, she decided to spend her vacation somewhere else. 8. She entered the hall (to accompany) by her mother. 9. (To warn) she decided not to take the risk and stayed at home. 10. Sam ,(to feel) that the interview was over, stood up.

Exercise 2. Use the present or past participle.

1. They watched the (to burn) forest helplessly. 2. The (to complete) letter was in front of him, but he was (to hesitate) to post it. 3. (To have) a shower, she got dressed. 4. He went to visit his aunt (to dress) as a real gentleman. 5. She gave me a drink (to make) of five different fruits. 6. (To advise) to give up work for a while, he undertook a trip to Europe. 7. During the flight I was (to read) a book. 8. He was (to dress) in a blue cotton shirt and a pair of grey trousers, (to spot) with vegetable oil.

Exercise 3. In the following pairs of sentences, the same verb is missing

twice, once used as a present participle and once as a past

participle. Insert the verbs in their correct forms.

1. I fell on ice, . . . my arm. Three people, . . . in an accident, were taken to hospital. (to hurt)

2. The film, . . . by Stephen Spielberg, is expected to be a great hit. They . . . beautiful silverware in Sheffield. (to make)

3. I looked at her, . . . her youth and beauty. This actress, though . . . by everybody, is very shy and modest. (to admire)

4. He walked down the road, . . . a song. This song is usually . . . by him at the beginning of a concert. (to sing)

5. Books . . . out of the library must be returned within 10 days. . . . a book from the shelf she didn't notice that it missed several pages. (to take).

Exercise 4. Participle clauses can express the following ideas:

at the same time; because; after; if; with the result that

Which of the above ideas do the following participle clauses express?

1. Kissing her mother goodbye, she went off to the station. 2. Knowing how much I liked this book, she presented me with it. 3. Awakened early, he had enough time to pack. 4. Having read the book, I went to bed. 5. Having read the book, I knew all about the subject. 6. He left the house saying he would be back by dinner. 7. Taken in three times a day, this medicine will help you in a week. 8. Having spent all our money in the restaurant, we went home.

Exercice 5. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the use of the participles.

1. Alloy is a material consisting of two or more elements. 2. A series of alloys known as aluminium bronzes posess high strength. 3. If worked beyond certain limits, the metal will become very brittle. 4. Depending upon the kind of metal and the final shape desired, one or more rolling operations may be possible. 5. The speed-range depends on the kind of speed-change mechanism used. 6. Engineers of the company designed a press line, believed to be the first of its kind in Britain. 7. Machines and machine products have made possible a standard of living unsurpassed in history. 8. Owing to these methods it has become possible to obtain new mechanical properties of the alloy. 9. The tin strengthens and hardens copper, making it hard and resistant to wear. 10. Iron oxide is the major problem when forging steel. 11. When broken, the material has a black, silken fracture. 12. A piece of steel heated to a bright cherry red and suddenly chilled becomes extremely hard. 13. Manganese, phosphorus, sulphur and silicon are the elements separately and distinctly acting on physical properties of steel. 14. Having found out how to separate the mixture into its components, we understood that we could finish our experiment successfully. 15. Iron and sulphur being ground together, a greenish-black powder is obtained. 16. The atoms in diamond being closer to each other than in graphite, this substance is very hard.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

Read the text given below and find answers to the following questions.

1. What were the first colleges of the US?

2. When was comprehensive education introduced in America?

3. Is the American system of education highly centralized?

4. Who manages secondary and high schools in the US?

5. What is a community college?

6. How long does it take to obtain a bachelor's degree?

7. Is education free in the US?

8. What do American institutions of higher education include?

Education

Over 57 million students are enrolled in American schools, which range from kindergartens to high schools, small colleges, large universities, as well as a variety of institutions for adult education and vocational training. Americans place a high value on education for themselves and their children, and universal access to quality education has been one of the nation's historic goals.

More than 100 years before the signing of the Declaration of Independence, European settlers in Massachusetts passed laws requiring all communities to hire schoolmasters; larger towns had to establish grammar schools to train children for the university. America's first college, Harvard, was founded in Massachusetts in 1636, and the second, William and Mary, was established in Virginia in 1693.

Higher education was revolutionized in 1862 by the Morrill Act, which granted federal lands to each state for the creation of agricultural and mechanical colleges. These “land-grant” institutions legitimized vocational and technical education.

By the end of the Civil War in 1865, education was becoming available to all, and educational institutions began to shape a distinctive American culture. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the schools were instrumental in “Americanizing” the massive numbers of immigrants who arrived in the United States. Indeed, the 20th century America is the product of a nationalism defined in large part by its schools.

Perhaps the most noteworthy feature about American education is the absence of a national administration or structure. Each of the 50 states controls and directs its own schools. Most states require that children attend school from the time they reach six or seven years old until they are 16 or 17. Educational requirements are set by the state legislatures, and public schools are managed by local communities, divided into about 15,500 state school districts.

About 85 percent of American students attend public schools which are supported by state and local taxes. The other 15 percent attend private schools, for which their families choose to pay special attendance fees. Four out of five American private schools are run by churches, synagogues or other religious groups.

In addition, schools have for many years received federal aid for special purposes, such as vocational training and school lunches. In 1965 Congress approved a major program of federal support for public schools, and federal aid was extended to private schools for the first time.

After graduating from secondary school, a growing number of Americans go on to higher education. The percentage of high school graduates enrolling in public colleges, for instance, has increased from 40.4 percent in 1960 to 54.3 percent in 1984. American institutions of higher education include technical training schools, which offer programs in fields ranging from hairstyling to computer programming; community colleges, which provide two years of semiprofessional training for some students and the first two years of college for others; colleges, offering four-year bachelor degree programs; and universities, which contain one or more colleges and graduate schools offering master's or doctoral degree programs. The factors determining an institution's prestige are the quality of the teaching faculty; quality of research facilities; amount of funding available; and the competence and number of applicants for admission.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Here are the answers to some questions about the text.

Make up the questions.

1. Americans place a high value on education for themselves and their children.

2. By the end of the Civil War in 1865 education was becoming available for all.

3. American education is not highly centralized.

4. Each of the states controls and directs its own schools.

5. Schools have for many years received federal aid for vocational training.

6. American institutions of higher education include technical training schools, community colleges; colleges offering four-year bachelor degree programs and universities.

7. The factors determining an institution's prestige are the quality of teaching, research facilities, amount of funding available.

8. Four out of five American private schools and universities are run by religious institutions.

Exercise 2. Complete the statements by choosing the right variant.

1. Students in Russian institutions of higher education . . . on the basis of entrance examinations.

a) are accepted b) enter c) are enrolled

2. Secondary education in the US has been . . . for all since the end of the Civil War.

a) available b) possible c) difficult

3. American education is characterized by the . . . of a centralized structure.

a) presence b) absence c) establishment

4. The state . . . set all educational requirements.

a) authorities b) administration c) legislatures

5. Schools receive federal . . . for special purposes.

a) aid b) assistance c) help

6. Americans . . . a high value on education.

a) put b) give c) place

7. Most American states . . . that children start schooling at the age of 6.

a) demand b) require c) insist

8. Public schools are supported by state and . . . taxes.

a) federal b) local c) private

9. Only . . . can offer doctoral degree programs.

a) universities b) community colleges c) vocational colleges

Exercise 3. What makes a good teacher?

Look at the following ideas and say which ones are

important in your opinion.

A good teacher:

- knows his/her subject very well

- gives interesting lessons

- makes sure the classroom is tidy and attractive

- always prepares his/her lessons

Now work with a partner to add at least four more characteristics of a good teacher.

Exercise 4. Find the Russian equivalents to the following proverbs.

Enlarge on them.

Better unborn than untaught.

Better untaught then ill-taught.

Learn wisdom by the follies of others.

Learn to say before you sing.

It is interesting to know that . . .

At an American college a freshman is a first-year student; a sophomore is a second-year student; a senior is a fourth-year student. All students who graduate from the senior course and who continue studying at a university are graduate students. Some graduate students who receive scholarships are called university fellows. The fellow assists a professor in a special field of research or takes responsibility for some classroom instruction.

Oral Practice

Business Correspondence: a Letter of Application

A Job Interview

The letter of application is also called the covering letter and it is as important as CV. They both provide the first direct contact between a candidate and an employer. If it is not written properly, it can produce a bad impression. Usually it contains 3 or more paragraphs in which you should:

- confirm that you wish to apply and say where you learned about the job;

- say why you are interested in the position and relate your interests to those

of the company;

- show that you can contribute to the job by highlighting your most relevant

skills and experience;

- indicate your willingness to attend an interview (and possibly state when

you would be free to attend).

The opening line will be:

“Dear Sir” (addressed to a man); “Dear Madam” (addressed to a woman);

“Dear Sir or Madam” (if you don't know who you are addressing to)

or just “Dear Mr Brown”/ “Dear Ms Smith”

Here is a sample of such a letter:

Natalie Smith

11 Blackpool Str.

Alfa Ltd

Kent

Dear Ms Smith,

I'm writing to you to apply for the position of Public Affairs Associate advertised in the International Herald Tribune last week.

Although I'm presently working for National Trust Fund, it has always been my intention to work in commercial environment. I would particularly enjoy the chance to work for your company and as you will notice on my enclosed curriculum vitae, the job you are offering matches my professional interests.

My work experience has familiarised me with the challenges involved in public relations today. I am sure that this together with my fluent knowledge of French would be extremely relevant to the position.

I would be pleased to discuss my curriculum vitae with you in more detail at an interview. In the meantime do not hesitate to contact me if you require further information.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely

Particia Flynch

11 High Street

Ramsgate EH 2 2LM

Kent

14.08.2000

Exercise 1. Write letters of application for the following positions:

1. Accountant: up too 35, degree in Finance/Economics; spoken English

Knowledge of GAAP accounting , software (is a plus)

Preparing accounting documentation & reporting to

Chief Accountant. Preparing documents for tax authorities,

salary calculation.

Contact with the banks for operations and follow up.

Salary up to $500.

2. Chief of Department of Bank Currency Operations:

30 - 40; university degree in Finance; fluent English;

over 3 years experience in currency operations and

international payments. Salary $1000 + bonus.

Tel: 978 - 6842

tel/fax: 978 - 8092

Exercise 2. A Job Interview

Ms Flynch: May I come in?

Mr Smith: Yes, please. You must be Ms Flynch. I've got your CV and letter

of application. What's your background?

Ms Flynch: I've got an engineering degree from Imperial College and a

Diploma in Public Relations from London Chamber of

Commerce. Three-year experience with Sheffield silver-works

and two year experience in public relations.

Mr Smith: That's fine. But you've got an excellent job. Why do you want to

change it?

Ms Flynch: Commercial work attracts me more. It is active and imaginative

imaginative. Besides I'm commuting to my present job.

Mr Smith: I see. Do you have any references?

Ms Flynch: Yes, I do.

Mr Smith: Fine. We'll let you know about the results in two weeks.

Ms Flynch: And will this job include any perks? Are there chances for

promotion?

Mr Smith: Yes, you'll have a car. The starting salary is 250 pounds a week.

Exercise 3. Make a dialogue of your own. A student-interviewer fills

in the interview report form

Interview Report Form

1. Job title ___________________________________________

2. Name of applicant __________________________________

3. Address ___________________________________________

permanent accomodation temporary accomodation

4. Age under 20 20 - 24 25 - 30 over 30

5. Educational qualifications _____________________________

details of subjects

6. Foreign languages spoken

_______ Fluent Very good Good Fair

_______

7. Work experience

industrial commercial retail

casual labour voluntary other

details _________________________-

8. General health and fitness:

excellent good fair poor

9. Hobbies

sport music theatre/cinema handicrafts

other

10. Personality

shy/nervous cold/distant relaxed/friendly

too casual/informal overconfident

11. Details of availability ____________________________

12. Starting salary offered ___________________________

Unit 3

Text 1

Alloy Steels

Alloy steels play an important role in all fields of industry. They are produced by the introduction of certain non-ferrous metals into low-carbon steels, notably tungsten, manganese, nickel and chromium.

One of the earliest alloy steels was introduced by R.F.Mushet who by adding tungsten to steel discovered self-hardening steel in 1868. Tools made by this method revolutionized machining processes, and it was also upon Mushet's self-hardening steel that the experiments were based, which led to the production of the high-speed steels developed later in America.

In 1893 Robert Hadfield made an important step forward in this field by incorporating manganese in steel. This alloy was found to possess remarkable tensile strength, elongation and hardness, and became invaluable for all machinery and plant subject to abrasive action such as railway crossings, dredger buckets and the like. These types of steel, however, did not provide a steel suitable for general constructional purposes, a start in this direction being made by J.Riley of Glasgow, who in 1889 by small additions of nickel to steel markedly increased the strength and toughness without decreasing the ductility. By addition of a further alloying element, chromium, H. Brearley in 1913 founded a class of constructional steels which, in addition to strength and resistance to wear, were also resistant to corrosion.

These alloy steels heralded in the Alloy Steel Age, and so great was their development that at the outbreak of the 1939 war there were no less than 2,000 different specifications dealing solely with alloys having various proportions of nickel, chromium and small additions of other elements. With such developments as jet propulsion, nuclear fusion as a source of power and space technology, the acceleration in alloys is likely to continue.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below:

manganese /m?ng?`ni:z/; tungsten /'t/\ ngst?n/; chromium /'kromj?m/; revolutionize /rev?`lu:??niz/; incorporate /in'ko:p?reit/; tensile /'tensail/; elongation /i:l?n'gei??n/; abrasive / ?`breisiv/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word- combinations

given below and use them in the sentences of your own.

of your own.

во всех отраслях промышленности; сталь с низким содержанием углерода; вольфрам; хром; марганец; революционизировать процесс обработки; растяжимость; значительно повысить твердость стали; конструкционная (строительная) сталь; возвестить; реактивное движение; слияние ядер.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the

sentences of your own.

1. self-hardening steel 1. предел прочности при растяжении

2. high-speed steel 2. испытывающее действие трения

3. railway crossings 3. и тому подобное

4. tensile strength 4. накануне

5. the like 5. ускорение развития сплавов

6. subject to abrasive action 6. иметь дело исключительно с

7. at the outbreak of 7. дальнейшая разработка сплавов

8. dealing solely with 8. быстрорежущая сталь

9. the acceleration in alloys 9. дисперсно-твердеющая сталь

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the way of producing alloy steels?

2. Why was incorporating manganese in steel an important step forward?

3. Which alloy steels are good for constructional purposes?

4. Why is the acceleration in alloys likely to continue?

Exercise 4. Look through the text and find the words which mean

the same as:

a branch of industry to change completely to unite closely

appropriate to concern with exclusively

to go on

Exercise 5. More about word-building: Prefixes.

e-, ex- = out, from, away

emigrate = move out of the country = эмигрировать

eminent = standing out, distinguished = выдающийся

expel = drive out = исключить

ante- = before ; post- = after; semi- = half

anteroom = a room forming an entrance to another = прихожая, приемная

postgraduate = a person who continues studying after graduation from a university = аспирант

semicircle = half of a circle = полукруг

Translate at sight:

1. Workers were paid on a semimonthly basis. 2. He has missed so many lectures, I am afraid he will be expelled from the university. 3. Workers who enter a semiskilled occupation do not have to undergo a long period of training. 4. My antecedents settled in London about a century ago. 5. After college Peter hopes to do postgraduate research in Department of Materials Science. 6. Iron is extracted from a rocky material called iron ore. 7. At the end of the lesson a group gathered around the teacher in a semicircle to ask additional questions. 8. You will not have to add a postscript if you plan your letter carefully.

Exercise 5. Give a written Russian translation of the following passages

1.There are carbon steels and alloy steels. Low-carbon steels are tough, yet easy to shape. High-carbon steels are hard and brittle, but can be given sharp cutting edges. Alloy steels contain a range of metals, each giving the steel a special property. Chromium, nickel, and steel make stainless steel, which is hard-wearing and does not rust.

2. Steel can be shaped in a variety of ways. Rolling stretches and squeezes ingots of steel into sheets, tubes, or strips. In drawing, rolled steel is pulled through a hole to make a wire. In casting, it is left to cool in a mould. Forged steel is made by squeezing hot steel.

3. Most iron is converted into steel in a basic oxygen furnace. A mixture of iron and steel scrap is poured into the furnace, and a jet of oxygen is blown over it. Oxygen combines with the carbon in the iron, carrying it away as carbon monoxide. It takes a basic oxygen furnace just 40 minutes to produce 350 tonnes of steel.

4. The ladles of molten steel are poured into moulds to make ingots, or a reservoir that serves a continuous casting process. Most steel is continuously cast because it is cheaper and better quality. These blocks of steel, called billets, can then be shaped by rolling, forging or casting.

Exercise 6. Listen to the short lecture and answer the following questions.

1. What is the main difference between ferrous and non-ferrous metals?

2. What are the properties of all metals.

3. Why is cast iron chiefly used in building?

4. What is a steel frame used for?

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Gerund

The Gerund has exactly the same form as the present participle:

running; speaking; etc.

The perfect Gerund - having run; having spoken

The passive Gerund - being written; having been written

It can be used:

as subject of a sentence

Developing a new method has taken much time.

Разработка нового метода потребовала много времени.

2) after prepositions:

He is thinking of going abroad this year.

Он думает о том, чтобы поехать за границу в этом году.

She is fond of skating. Она любит кататься на коньках.

3) after certain verbs: admit, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape, excuse, fancy, finish, forgive, imagine, keep (continue), mind (object), miss, postpone, prevent, remember (recollect), resist, stop, suggest, understand.

Forgive my interrupting you. I can't prevent his (him) going there.

Извините, что я прерываю вас. Я не могу помешать ему идти туда.

He disliked working late. Do you mind my (me) taking this book?

Он не любит работать допоздна. Вы не возражаете, если я возьму эту

книгу?

4) The perfect gerund is used when we are referring to a past action:

He denied having been there. Он отрицал, что был там.

5) A number of verbs and prepositions can be followed by posessive adjective/pronoun / noun object + gerund

I insist on his writing a letter immediately. I heard about your brother's going

Я настаиваю на том, чтобы он немедлен- abroad. Я слышал, что ваш брат

но написал письмо. едет за границу.

In less formal English we may not use the possessive case with the gerund:

Forgive me ringing you up so early. I don't remember my brother waking up

Извини, что звоню тебе так рано. so early. Я не помню, чтобы мой брат

так рано вставал.

Gerund переводится на русский язык существительным, деепричастием, инфинитивом или целым предложением.

Exercise 1. Use the correct form of the Gerund.

1. I don't fancy (to go) out this evening. 2. Are you going to give up (to smoke)? 3. He denied (to be) there before. 4. I can't imagine Pat (to ride) a bike. 5. She kept on (to interrupt) me while I was speaking. 6. I don't enjoy (to write) letters. 7. I never thought of (to invite) to their party. 8. He denied ever (to see) those people before. 9. By (to pass) Acts, Parliament can even alter the Constitution. 10. Why do you keep on (to look) at me in this way? 11. Could you please stop (to make) so much noise? 12. When everybody sat down, Harris began (to sing). 13. The boy was afraid of (to leave) alone. 14. I insist on (to listen to) attentively.

Exercise 2. Translate the following dialogues and use the patterns

in the dialogues of your own.

Pat - Do you mind my sitting in your favourite chair?

Liz - Not at all.

Pat - It's so comfortable that I can never resist the temptation of sitting

in it. Those modern things are terribly uncomfortable.

Liz - But they look very nice.

Pat - Oh, yes. I always enjoy looking at them, but I try to avoid sitting

in them.

Liz - I know, many people object to their being rather hard.

Paul - Do you think Henry will come to the party tonight?

Bill - I doubt it. He isn't very sociable. He doesn't like meeting strangers

and he hates dancing. He prefers reading. In fact, he prefers books

to people.

Paul - But his wife loves dancing and simply adores meeting people.

Bill - That's true. That's why Henry doesn't like her going out alone.

Exercise 3. Use Gerund or Infinitive in the following sentences.

1. I don't mind (to play) cards with you. 2. I would love (to come) to see you tomorrow. 3. I like (to play) tennis. 4. I'd like (to play) tennis today. 5. I very much enjoy (to listen) to folk songs. 6. Please, remember (to post) this letter. 7. Someone must have taken my bag. I clearly remember (to leave) it on the table. 8. Tom helped his mother (to get) the dinner ready. 9. You are free (to go) anywhere you like. 10. I don't mind (to wait). It's better (to be) too early than too late. 11. Before (to deal) with the changes in the smelting procedure, it will be proper (to consider) the way of application of powdered coal as a fuel. 12. The history of culture tells us about the ancients (to make) some chance discoveries. 13. Phosphorous and sulphur are elements (to eliminate) from the molten metal. 14. I did not know of his (to complete) the experiment successfully.

Exercise 4. Translate into Russian, paying attention to gerunds.

1. He didn't enjoy living in London. 2. They are thinking about taking part in this conference. 3. Checking detail is not one of my strong points. 4. I'm afraid she is not used to working so hard. 5. He doesn't regret leaving his well-paid job. 6. She stopped playing the piano, stood up and went out of the room. 7. He had always been interested in playing with engines and motors. 8. I like working with my hands. 9. Translating foreign languages is difficult. 10. They prefer living in the country to living in the town. 11. This coat is rather dirty. It needs cleaning. 12. She left without saying good-bye to anybody. 13. She is not looking forward to doing the exam. 14. We went to a restaurant instead of eating out. 15. Various methods and machines can be used for producing this material. 16. On heating to a higher temperature the carbon diffuses into the still solid iron, thereby increasing its carbon content.

Exercise 5. In Text 2 find the gerunds and explain their use.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

Agree or disagree with the following statements after scanning

the text given below:

1. The Pilgrims left England because they were not allowed to separate from the Established Church.

2. Their first winter in America was very successful for the Pilgrims.

3. A day of Thanksgiving was connected with harvest time.

4. The English had a similar festival “Harvest Home” to celebrate the last load of grain brought home.

5. Thanksgiving Day became the national festival in the 18th century.

6. The main colours of Thanksgiving Day are yellow and orange.

7. Fish is a traditional dish of this festival.

The US Customs and Traditions

Thanksgiving Day

Thanksgiving was first celebrated in 1621 by English settlers of the Plymouth colony, and the spirit and customs with which they endowed the day have remained unchanged.

The settlers, who have since come to be called the Pilgrims had left their native England because they had been denied the right to separate from the Established Church to worship in their own way. They fled first to Holland, and in 1620 they sailed to America on the “Mayflower”, and after a tempestous two-month voyage they landed at what is now Plymouth, Massachusetts, in icy November.

During their first winter, over half of the settlers died of starvation or epidemics, but the courageous survivors, through faith and some fortunate circumstances, were able to found a permanent colony. While scouting the area for fresh water, they had unearthed a cache of Indian seed corn, and when April came they began their planting, struggling with the rocky soil as they had struggled with the bitter climate. When, finally, the fields produced a yield rich beyond expectations, Governor William Bradford proclaimed `a day of Thanksgiving unto the Lord so we might after a more special manner, rejoice after we had gathered the fruits of our labors.”

The idea of giving thanks was not new nor was it peculiar to the Pilgrims. Throughout mythology and recorded history there have been harvest festivals. The ancient Hebrews, the Greeks and the Romas all celebrated the earth's bounty. The English had their “Harvest Home”, a festival to celebrate the last load of grain brought home, with its church service of thanksgiving followed by a public feast and sports events. All these were part of the colonists' heritage. Yet Thanksgiving as first celebrated by the Pilgrims and repeated by Americans ever since has unique qualities born of life in the New World.

After 1623 Thanksgiving Days were celebrated irregularly and on a regional basis. A national Thanksgiving Day came only after the thirteen colonies had been united and George Washington, the Republic's first president, had assumed office.

Since Lincoln's time it has been the custom for the President of the United States to proclaim annually the fourth Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day, and for the Governors of the states to issue proclamations for their respective states. The date has remained as fixed in 1863, nor has the pattern of the Thanksgiving celebration changed through the years.

Table decorations follow a traditional pattern. Flowers also bring the Fall scene indoors. There are bouquets of chrysanthemums of golden yellow combined with dried branches. The centerpiece is the traditional roast turkey.

Exercise 1. Choose the word or phrase that best completes each

sentence.

1. The first Americans . . . were of British stock.

a) inhabitants b) settlers c) population

2. He was . . . a mile from the hotel when he ran out of petrol.

a) within b) inside c) only

3. When the fields produced rich harvest Governor Bradford . . . a day of Thanksgiving to the Lord.

a) announced b) proclaimed c) started

4. They . . . the fire brigade twice yesterday.

a) summoned b) called for c) called out

5. Goverment is said . . . currency notes from circulation.

a) call in b) withdraw c) get rid of

6. Christmas is . . . all over the world.

a) marked b) celebrated c) noted

7. . . . Lincoln's time the 4th Thursday of Novebmer was proclaimed as Thanksgiving Day.

a) from b) since c) throughout

8. Easter is one of the most important . . . in the Christian world.

a) festivals b) feasts c) celebrations

Exercise 2. Look through the text and find words or phrases

which meas the same as

a usual, habitual course of action; escape; more than half of; to locate permanently; to make known publicly; very special; every year; written history.

Exercise 3. Talk about some more American festivals.

Exercise 4. Listen to the lecture on American life-style and determine

whether each of the following statements is true or false

according to the information in the lecture.

1. The American family hasn't changed much in the last few decades.

2. The traditional American family consists of a mother, father and one or two children.

3. Grandparents do not care for their grandchildren.

4. The roles of parents have not changed.

5. Today nearly half of married American women work.

6. Men do not take part in raising children.

7. Edlerly parents prefer to live separately from their children.

Oral Practice

Information Letter. Going on a Business Trip

Mr Petrov

General Director

Beta Ltd

Dear Mr Petrov

I would like to inform you that a delegation from our company of two people will arrive in Moscow in the end of October.

I would be grateful if you could arrange their visit to some of the development laboratories to see the equipment in operation.

I thank you in advance for your cooperation.

Yours faithfully

Christian Baker

Note! No abbreviations can be used in business letter.

Chris - Do you like the idea of taking a month's trip to Moscow?

Susan - What? You are kidding!

Chris - No. First of all I must say it will be a business trip.

The company wants us to visit some of our operations.

Susan - You mean we'll have meetings about the new computer we are

developing?

Chris - Yes, one of the development laboratories is in Moscow.

The company has got an office there.

Susan - Is it a joint venture?

Chris - Yes, it is.

Susan - It'll be very exciting.

Exercise 1. Write an information letter about your arrival in London.

You are coming to get acquianted with a new line of

metallurgical equipment. Discuss the business trip with

your colleague.

Exercise 2. Telephone you English colleagues and make all necessary

appointments. Use the patterns from the previous units.

not to be in the office for a moment; to leave a message for smb; to phone back; to connect with; to make an appointment; could you put me through to smb; I'm sorry; I am fully booked for that day; could you come over to the office tomorrow; can I confirm the appointment; would it be too much to ask you to arrange a trip to?; I'm sorry he is in a conference now; etc.

Unit 4

Text 1

Aluminum

Aluminium is the most common metal on Earth. It occurs naturally in many different kinds of rocks. But most of the aluminium we use is extracted from an ore called bauxite, which is formed over long periods by the weathering of rocks containing aluminium silicates (aluminium, silicon and oxygen).

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite by the Bayer process and electrolysis. In the Bayer process, bauxite is mixed with caustic soda and heated. This produces sugar-like crystals of pure aluminium oxide. These are dissolved in molten sodium aluminium fluoride, called cryolite. Electrolysis is then used to split up the aluminium and oxygen.

In 1886 two chemists independently discovered how to extract aluminium using electricity. Their discovery reduced the price of aluminium to a fraction of the price of silver in four years. The two chemists were Charles Martin Hall (1863 - 1914), a student at Oberlin College in the USA, and P.L.T. Heroult (1863 - 1914), a young chemist working in France. By coincidence, they were not only the same age when they made their discovery, but also died within eight months of each other.

Before this, the metal was much more expensive than silver and gold. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, for example, used aluminium plates to impress the most important guests. Today we use aluminium foil to wrap food because it is so cheap.

Aluminium is also durable, light and a good conductor of electricity. It is used to protect metals against corroding because when the surface of aluminium reacts with oxygen in the air, a thick coating of aluminium oxide forms that seals a metal from the air. It is also used to make parts for planes, cars, and lorries, to make electric cables.

Task 1.

Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn how to pronounce the words given below:

bauxite /bo:ksait/; silicate /'silikeit/; caustic /ko:stik/; fluoride /flu?rid/; cryolite /'krai?lait/; coincidence /kou'insid?ns/; surface /'s?:fis/; lorry /lori/.

Task 2.

Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-combinations

given below and use them in the sentences of your own.

самый распространенный металл; бокситы; добывать из; фтористое соединение; криолит; разлагать; хороший проводник электричества; предохранять металлы от ржавчины; поверхность; покрытие; понизить цену до.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the

sentences of your own.

1. it occurs naturally 1. в течение долгого времени

2. over long periods 2. они - ровесники

3. sugar-like 3. алюминиевая фольга

4. by coincidence 4. чистая окись алюминия

5. they are the same age 5. защищать металл от доступа воздуха

6. to seal a metal from 6. по случайному стечению обстоятельств

the air (случайно)

7. aluminium foil 7. встречается в природе

8. pure aluminium oxide 8. похожий на сахар

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions

1. Where does aluminium occur naturally? 2. Was aluminium always a cheap metal? 3. What reduced the price of aluminium? 4. What are the properties of aluminium? 5. Is aluminium widely used and where?

Exercise 4. Paraphrase the following sentences using the words from

the list given below.

1. Aluminium is drawn out from bauxite by the Bayer process.

2. We use aluminium to shield metals from corroding.

3. Aluminium is found mainly in bauxite.

4. Aluminium used to be a very dear metal before two chemists opened how to extract it using electricity.

5. Aluminium oxide encloses a metal securely from the air.

occur discover extract expensive protect seal

Exercise 5. Listen to the lecture and answer the questions.

1. Did the use of aluminium improve the quality of a large road bridge in Pennsylvania?

2. Why has aluminium been slow in progress?

3. What is necessary to reduce the price of aluminium?

4. What are the best qualities of aluminium?

Exercise 6. Translate at sight. What else do you know about aluminium?

1. Aluminium alloys can possess the strength of steel, though only a third the weight. 2. Cows give more milk when there are cool, heat-reflecting aluminium roofs on their dairy barns. 3. Aluminium offers a bright hope for energy conservation. 4. In direct contact with a heat source, aluminium is an excellent conductor. 5. World's lightweight champion in the long-distance transport of electricity, aluminium, has virtually replaced heavier copper in high-voltage power lines. 6. Nearly indestructible, aluminium can be remelted over and over. 7. Aluminium is alloyed with small amounts of other metals. 8. Copper adds strength; magnesium imparts additional marine-corrosion resistance.

Task 3.

Focus on Grammar

Complex Object

Object + Infinitive Object + Participle

I asked Tom to help me. I saw her crossing the street.

He would like me to come. I want it explained.

They made me do it.

Complex Object is used after certain verbs:

1) denoting order, request (ask, tell, order, force, etc.)

The teacher told us to do this exercise.

Преподаватель сказал нам сделать это упражнение.

They forced us to agree with them.

Они вынудили нас согласиться с ними.

2) denoting mental perception, thinking (think, consider, believe, expect, mean, know, etc.)

I consider him to be a good student.

Я считаю, что он - хороший студент

3) wish, want, like, dislike, hate, have (= allow), get (=make)

I want you to visit us tomorrow.

Я хочу, чтобы вы навестили нас завтра.

After these 3 groups of verbs Infinitive of the Complex Object construction is used with “to”.

4) after the verbs denoting sensual perception (feel, see, hear, watch, notice)

I heard her singing in the next room.

Я слышала, как она поет в соседней комнате.

I heard her sing once.

Однажды я слышала, как она поет.

Present Participle is used to stress a simultaneous action.

5) after let (предоставлять); make (заставлять).

Let me do it. Позвольте мне сделать это.

I'll make you do it Я заставлю вас сделать это.

After these 2 groups of verbs Infinitive of the Complex Object construction is used without “to”.

6) after find, imagine, fancy Participle I is used in the Complex Object construction.

They found me reading a newspaper. Они застали меня за чтением газеты.

Fancy her doing it. Представь, что она делает это.

7) after believe, consider, feel, find, get, have, keep, leave, like, make, see, think, want, watch, should/would like Past Participle can be used in the Complex Object construction.

I want it done. Я хочу, чтобы это было сделано.

Get the papers typed. Скажи, чтобы отпечатали эти бумаги.

В технической литературе Complex Object часто встречается с глаголами to permit и to enable. Эта конструкция обычно переводится косвенным дополнением в дательном падеже (Infinitive Active):

The new equipment enables the operator to finish parts with more accuracy. - Новое оборудование дает возможность рабочему обрабатывать детали с большей точностью.

Если за глаголами в составе Complex Object следует Infinitive Passive, то его надо переводить активной формой непосредственно после сказуемого, а существительное сделать его дополнением.

The new device enables the lathe to be used for a greater range of work.. Новое приспособление дает возможность использовать станок для выполнения большего числа операций.

Exercise 1. Translate into Russian.

1. He heard someone call his name. 2. I expect this translation to have been finished by June. 3. He ordered dinner to be served at eight. 3.Your enthusiasm makes me feel young again. 5. His knowledge of English helped him find a good job. 6. I want you to follow my advice. 7. We didn't expect them to have come earlier than we did. 8. When will you have your PC fixed? 9. We consider him to be an expert in physical chemistry. 10. Who made you think so? 11. Can you fancy him wearing this suit? 12. I except her to arrive in London on Saturday. 13. She let me persuage them to join us. 14. You may leave the plates unwahsed. We'll do them later. 15. Fancy meeting them here. 16. I won't have anything said against her. 17. We got the matters arranged very quickly.

Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following using a Complex Object with

an Infinitive, Participle I or Participle II.

1. He heard that someone called his name. 2. Mother used to watch how I was playing tennis. 3. I want that everything has been arranged by the time I come. 4. He hated it when people were impolite to him. 5. He thought he was fit for the job. 6. When we called for him, we found that he had already left. 7. He expected that his efforts would be paid back. 8. They heard how the woman said something. 9. People who knew her felt that she was a woman of strong will. 10. What I want is that you both should be happy.

Exercise 3. Use the correct forms of the infinitives in parenthesis.

1. We can assume the following principle (to be) rather true. 2. We know the third machine in the line (to be) a duplicate of the first one. 3. They supposed the new equipment (to double) the output since it was introduced. 4. The director found the workers (to discuss) the advantages of the new method of cold metal treatment. 5. I want this experiment (to continue). I believe it (to be) a success. 6. Application of the results of this experiment will enable us (to simplify) the casting process. 7. The author believes it (to state) in the earlier works of his colleagues that controlled-atmoshere furnaces may be employed to prevent the formation of scale. 8. They heard them (to argue) about the shortcomings of the invention. 9. I shall have this translation (to do). I have no time to do it myself.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

1. What do you already know about American English?

2. How many variants of the English language do you know?

3. Now look through the text and say what facts are new to you.

American English

American English is very different from other forms of English spoken around the world. If you learned English as a second language, you probably learned a British variety in a classroom setting. One of the first things you will notice in the United States is the American usage of English does not always conform to strict rules. Even among well educated Americans, spoken English is very flexible and popular idioms are common - another example of American informality.

To understand American English, listen carefully, relax, and be aware that idioms are often used. For example, an American might greet you with Howya doin? as a way of saying `hello'. Other common phrases include Shape up (behave yourself), Suit yourself (do as you please), and Knock it off (stop what you are doing). If you do not understand an American's phrase ask for an explanation.

Throughout the country, only a few minor dialectal variations exist. Except for some differences in pronunciation, Americans speak a uniform language. This is due largely to American mobility, the national mass media (especially television), and the nation's education system. In areas such as New England, the `r' may be dropped from the end of a word; in the South, English is spoken at a slower pace that leads to different vowel pronunciations. In general, Americans draw out their sounds, rather than speaking in concise, clipped syllables. Some ethnic groups also have their own variety of English, especially in large urban areas. Spanish is common in many Hispanic communities, and Native Americans speak a variety of Amerindian languages. Many first- and second-generation immigrants continue to speak their native tongues.

A special challenge for newcomers is to understand American idioms. Some for years have learned many English words, but they are still baffled in trying to understand when Americans combine words into expressions.

American English is constantly being enriched by new words, new meanings given to old words. The problem presented by idioms is that these expressions usually include words that are understandable by themselves, but when combined with other words often have entirely different meaning. Also, Americans use the same idiom to mean diametrically opposite things. For example, “That's just great.” means both “wonderful” and “that's awful”.

Task 2.

Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Choose the one best answer to each question from the text.

1. Is American English a language or a variety of the English language?

a) a variety b) a dialect c) a language

2. Does American English observe strict rules?

a) no rules at all b) strict rules c) not always

3. What is often used in American English?

a) proverbs b) idioms c) neologisms

4. Where can you find the main differences between American and British English?

a) in vocabulary b) in grammar c) in pronunciation

5. Are there many dialectal variations in American English?

a) many b) two major c) a few minor

Exercise 3. Below there are some examples of American idioms and their English meanings. Translate them into colloquial Russian.

1. Catch on? Do you understand?

2. We are working for peanuts. We are working for very low wages.

3. Dry up Be quiet!

4. What's the catch? What's the bad news?

5. Put on your best bib and tucker. Put on your best clothes.

6. Will he catch on? Will he discover the truth? 7. It's a snow job. They are trying to fool us.

8. He is square. He is very formal.

9. It's a lemon! I's faulty! It's worthless!

10. Way to go! Wonderful!

Exercise 4. Below there are two texts which mean the same but one

is written in conversational American English and the

other - in a more formal, relatively idiom - free English.

Make a little idiom dictionary.

1. Sam is a real cool cat. He never blows his stack; he hardly ever flies off the handle. What's more, he knows how to get away with things. . . . Well, of course, he is getting on, too. His hair is pepper and salt, but he knows how to make up for lost time by taking it easy. He gets up early, works out and turns in early. He takes care of the hot dog stand like a breeze until he gets time off. Sam's got it made; this is it for him.

Sam is a really calm person. He never loses control of himself; he hardly becomes very angry. Furthermore, he knows how to manage his business financially by using a few tricks. . . . Needless to say, he is also getting older. His hair is beginning to turn gray, but he knows how to compensate for wasted time by relaxing. He rises early, exercises, and goes to bed early. He manages his frankfurter stand without visible effort, until it is someone else's turn to work there. Sam is successful, he has reached his life's goal.

Exercise 5. Here are some more Americanisms. Write their

equivalents in British English.

1. He ain't gonna help. 6. I gotta go.

2 . Monday thru Friday. 7. Did you have a good vacation?

3. Boy, he was real mad! 8. Wonna cookie?

4. I arrived in the fall. 9. Waiter! The check, please.

5. I'm going downtown. 10. What did you do on the weekend?

Oral Practice

Enquiry Letters. Making Plans

An enquiry letter states the aim of the letter and conditions on which the author would like to achieve the aim. (for example, the name of equipment; its quality and quantity; the model; the terms of delivery; the price)

Mr Hemingway

Export Manager

Primrose & Co

Dear Mr Hemingway,

We are much interested in the new line of gold extraction advertised by you in the recent issue of “The Metallurgy”. The advertisement however, does not give sufficient information about the specifications, price, and terms of delivery.

Therefore we should appreciate further details as soon as possible.

We hope to establish long-term business relations with your company and look forward to hearing from you soon.

Sincerely yours

Vincent Robins

Dialogue

Ben - Hi, Susan. Haven't seen you for ages. How are things?

Susan - Great. We are busy with a new line of gold extraction.

Ben - Sounds interesting. Are you going to apply for a patent soon?

Susan - Yes, we are. We are preparing the necessary papers now.

Ben - And how about the market research?

Susan - Oh, there is a good market not only here but abroad, as well.

Ben - Then I advise you to start a good promotional campaign.

Susan - Without doubt. Sorry, I must dash now.

Ben - Bye then, it was nice to meet you again.

Exercise 1. Write an enquiry letter about a new model of PC. Use the

phrases given above and some additional phrases like:

We require; we are regular buyers of; we are in the market for;

we learned from . . . that you are exporters of;

could you send us your quotation for . . .;

please, inform us what is the price of your new model/ what are your terms of delivery.

Exercise 2. Make a dialogue. You and your friend are making plans to

set up a new business. Use the phrases from the dialogue given

above and some additional patterns.

to go into business with smb; to get along well; to run a risk in one's business; to be liable; to invest money; to contribute skills/name/reputation; to distribute profits and losses; to share profits and losses equally; the production targets; to keep abreast of.

Exercise 3. Listen to the short lecture and choose the best answers

from the four given.

1. What US agency controls the Patent Office?

a) The State Department b) The Treasury Department

c) The Department of Commerce d) The Department of Agriculture

2. For how long is a patent in the US granted?

a) for seven years b) for seventy years c) for seventy seven years

d) for seventeen years

3. Who is responsible for administering the patent laws?

a) Patent examiners who are trained in technical fields

b) The President of the US

c) The Director of the US Patent Office

d) Government officials from the applicant's home state

Chapter 5

Metal Processing and the Environment

Unit 1

Text 1

Casting

The last hundred years has seen marked improvements and innovations in the ancient art of casting. Pressure die casting involving the injection of metal into metal dies or moulds under pressure has expanded greatly since World War One. It is the fastest of all casting processes, a large tonnage of aluminium and zinc base die-cast alloys being produced for the automobile, aircraft and engineering industries. Investment casting has also been modernized and introduced as a mass production technique.

The application of continuous methods to the casting of ingots has made rapid strides since the last war. This method of casting involves the continuous solidification of the ingot while it is being poured, the length not being determined by mould dimension. Liquid metal enters one end of a mould continuously, solidified metal emerging from the other end in a long length of the required cross-section which can be cut to length for further processing. Casting by this method eliminates the casting bay, ingot moulds, soaking pit and primary rolling mills. In addition to the saving on capital and reheating costs there is usually an improvement in the yield of saleable product as compared with conventional casting and rolling.

As far back as 1856 Henry Bessemer realized the advantages of the technique and in fact produced sheet by pouring molten steel between a pair of water-cooled rolls, but the product was lacking in quality. During the intervening hundred years many different ideas for the direct casting of liquid metal continuously to semi-finished product were suggested and patented.

Continuous casting machines first achieved success in the non-ferrous field particularly for copper, brass and aluminium. Progress with steel was negligible until the last war, when notable developments were made in Germany, Russia, the United States and the U.K.

The continuous-casting unit is a single-strand machine. The main specifications of the continuous-casting plant are as follows: single-strand, bow-type, and multi-roll system of 10.5 m radius; the possible dimensions of the slabs are 130 and 155 mm thickness, 650-1300 mm width, 4500-10000 mm length, and maximum weight of 20 t; withdrawal speed 0.2 - 2.0 m/min with a standard casting speed of 0.7 - 1.3 m/min; and a planned capacity of the caster of 12000 t/month. These specifications can be different, depending on a continuous casting plant.

Task 1. Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn how to pronounce the words given below:

liquid /'likwid/; continuously /k?n'tinju?sli/; solidified /s?`lidifaid/; yield /ji:ld/; saleable /'seil?bl/; intervening / int?`vi:ni?/; negligible /'neglij?bl/; bow /bou/; radius /'reidj?s/.

Task 2. Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word

combinations given below and use them in the sentences

of your own.

матрица; литейная форма; литье под давлением; технология массового производства; непрерывный метод; размеры литейной формы; отвержденный; поперечное сечение; доход; преимущества технологии; незначительный прогресс; технические условия; запланированная мощность.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given below

with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the sentences of your own.

1. to expand greatly 1. литейный отсек

2. investment casting 2. продукт не обладал высоким качеством

3. soaking pit 3. последующие сто лет

4. casting bay 4. широко распространиться

5. saleable product 5. нагревательный колодец

6. product was lacking in quality 6. товар, пользующийся спросом

7. the intervening hundred years 7. литье по выплавляемым моделям

8. single-strand machine 8. имеющий форму дуги

9. bow-type 9. одноручьевая установка непрерывной

разливки

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What is pressure die casting?

2. Why did die casting quickly expand?

3. What does the continuous method of casting involve?

4. What are the advantages of the continuous method of casting?

5. When did continuous casting machines first achieve success?

Exercise 4. More about word-building: Expressing the number in compound words:

(single-strand, multi-roll)

Study the following list of prefixes and match the terms at

the left with their meanings at the right.

uni/mono = 1 hexa = 6 milli = 1/1000

dou/di/bi = 2 octa = 8 kilo = 1000

tri = 3 deci = 1/10

qued/tetra = 4 deca = 10

penta = 5 centi = 100 or 1/100

1.binary 1. having 4 sides

2. pentagon 2. having 6 angles

3. trigonometry 3. line that cuts a circle in half

4. monochrome 4. 10 liters

5. hexangular 5. study of right triangles

6. decaliter 6. 1/10 of a liter

7. deciliter 7. involving 2

8. diameter 8. single colour

Exercise 5. Put into chronological order the main stages of the

development of casting.

Exercise 6. Translate at sight.

1. A drill bit cuts its way through hard material, spinning thousands of times a minute. A tungsten carbide alloy, with a melting point of over 2,900⁰ C ( 5,250⁰F) provides strength to do this.

2. Solder, an alloy of tin and lead, is perfect for joining metal parts together. It has a lower melting point than either of its pure metals, so it does not damage any of the parts. It creates a bridge between the two metal parts.

3. Jet aircraft need lightweight alloys for their bodies to make take off easier and to keep fuel consumption down. Their engines need special alloys designed to withstand very high temperatures. Rapidly spinning turbine blades at the front of the engine suck in air at temperatures of up to 600⁰C (1,100⁰F).

4. In a jet engine, metal discs hold the turbine blades in place. Discs are made from a superalloy of 11 elements including nickel and titanium.

5. Dental Alloy. You may have an alloy in your teeth. Dentists use amalgam - the alloy of mercury, silver, tin, zinc, and copper - to fill cavities. It forms a solid that can be shaped like putty to match the contours of the teeth before it hardens.

Task 3. Focus on Grammar

Complex Subject

He is known to be a good student. Известно, что он - хороший студент.

She seems to be sleeping Кажется, что она спит.

They are likely to come soon. Похоже, что они скоро придут.

1) Complex Subject is used if a predicate is in passive voice. (see, hear, consider, think, report, announce, inform, etc.)

She is considered to be a good specialist,

They are known to have come to Moscow.

2) Complex Subject is used if a predicate is in active voice. (see, happen, prove (out), turn (out), appear).

I appear to have known it.

The work turns out to be easy.

3) Complex Subject is used after some modal constructions: to be (un)likely, to be certain, to be sure.

He is sure to come soon.

Complex Subject переводится на русский язык изъяснительным придаточным предложением. Главное предложение всегда неопределенно-личное, типа “Говорят…”, “Сообщают…”, “Оказывается…” и т.д.

Exercise 1. Translate into Russian.

1. They seem to know everything. 2. The weather seems to be changing. 3. The house was found to be deserted. 4. You seem to be very tired. Wouldn't you like to have a short rest? 5. This test is supposed to be the final one. 6. Your telegramme is sure to be delievered tomorrow morning. 7. He seems to be getting angry. 8. They are likely to be very close. 9. Her flat turned out to be tiny and cosy. 10. I happened to overhear their conversation. 11. This book is expected to be published soon. 12. The results of his research turned out to be even more interesting than we had expected. 13. This invention is thought to save much money. 14. They are supposed to have arrived in London.

Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following so as to use a Complex Subject.

1. People think that the climate here is very healthful. 2. It is widely known that Bernard Show was a very witty man. 3. It was reported that the construction of a new plant had started. 4. We are pretty sure that everything will be all right. 5. It seems they know all about it. 6. It is not likely that your answer will suit him. 7. It turned out that the experiment was a great success. 8. It was supposed that they were working on a new invention. 9. I'm sure you will be able to do it. 10. It happened so that I had met the man before. 11. Nobody expected that he would come back so soon.

Exercise 3. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the use of Complex Subject.

These electrones are known to be responsible for various chemical properties of the different elements. 2. Iron sulphide is found to be composed of iron and sulphur in a definite proportion. 3. The Romans are said to have covered their war machines with silver. 4. The ferrite grains appear fairly uniform in their size. 5. The company happened to be developing the new energy sources for aluminium production. 6. The 3-d International Conference on Manufacturing Machinery for Mines and Steelworks is announced to be held this June. 7. In summary these new methods appear to be superior to any other methods. 8. The stress of the neutral axis is likely to be quite small. 9. Tony Amico, Vice-President of operations is reported to continue in his current role at the company to integrate the most advanced technologies available in precious metal recovery. 10. Iron sulphide is considered to be a compound because it consists of two different elements and has its own characteristics. 11. The practical importance of this invention proved to be great.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

1. What facts about Canada do you already know?

2. Now look through the text and say what new facts about Canada have you found in it?

3. Agree or disagree with the following statements:

a) Canada is a multi-national country.

b) English is the only national language in Canada.

c) The French population of Canada has lost its language, culture and traditions.

d) The story of modern Canada began two centuries ago.

e) During the American Revolutionary War both French and English colonists decided against political independence.

f) The Confederation of Canada was created in the second half of the 19th century.

g) Canada is poor in mineral resources.

Canada

Canada is over 3.8 million square miles in area. It is the second largest country in the world, covering nearly half the North American continent.

The population of Canada is about 30 mln people. Over two-fifths is of British stock. French-speaking descendants of the original French colonists constitute about 30 per cent. The rest are of other origins. Most French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, but there are also many in other parts of the country, notably New Brunswick, Ontario, Manitoba. After the British conquest of Quebec, the French retained their language, culture and traditions. The third largest ethnic group of Canada are the Germans. Other large groups are the Ukrainians, Italians, Scandinavians, Netherlanders and Poles. The native peoples of Canada, the Indians and the Eskimos, comprise only 1.4 per cent of the population.

The name “Canada” was given to the country by its first inhabitants. The Huron-Iroquois Indians used the word `kanata' to describe a settlement.

The story of modern Canada began in the 14th century. A Genoese navigator John Cabot discovered it but he didn't found any settlement. The true founder and settler of French Canada was the French explorer Samuel de Champlain who established the first tiny settlements of French pioneers between 1604 and 1634. The first English pioneers settled in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia.

The American Revolutionary War of the 1770s caused a march on Montreal by American forces, and both English and French colonists in the North chose British sovereignty instead of political independence.

The British North America Act of 1867 created the Confederation of Canada, embracing four provinces - Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The Act also provided a parliamentary system of Government. Executive authority remained with the Queen of England. The Governor General has since followed the parliamentary tradition and has acted on the advice of the Prime Minister and his Cabinet, who must have the support of the majority of the House of Commons. Six other provinces have since come into being.

Canada is a highly developed industrial country. The mining industry in Canada is 4 centuries old. The Government of Canada pays much attention to education. There are about 70 universities and 300 other post-secondary institutions, mainly colleges.

Task 2. Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Complete the statements by choosing the right variant.

1. Over two-fifths of Canadian population is of . . .

a) British stock b) French speaking c) the natives.

2. A Genoese navigator John Cabot . . .

a) established the first tiny settlements

b) discovered Canada but didn't found any settlement

c) couldn't reach Canada

3. The British North America Act of 1867 . . .

a) abolished the rule of the Queen

b) declared political independence

c) provided a parliamentary system of Government and preserved executive authority in the hands of the Queen of England

4. A great deal of Canada's history is closely connected . . .

a) with textile industry b) with great geographical discoveries

c) with mineral exploration and development

Exercise 2. Look through the text and find the synonyms to the

following words

space origin preserve small troops the greater part of

promote ten years well-known important

Use them in the sentences of your own

Exercise 3. In the text you came across the verb `follow' which is

widely used as a phrasal verb.

to follow = to go or come after, to pursue, to obey, to attend upon steadily, to

keep one's attention fixed upon

to follow out = to carry smth out to the end

to follow up = to pursue smb

to follow up = to achieve smth

Translate the following idioms and collocations into Russian.

as follows, to follow smb like a shadow, to follow like sheep, to follow one's nose.

Choose the appropriate phrasal verb, idiom or collocation to complete the following sentences:

1. He could not . . . the lecture because he didn't feel well. 2. She is a very ambitious person and tries . . . everything. 3. . . . this road until you reach the bank, then turn left. 4. She is so obedient and always . . . him. 5. They decided . . . the plan of their work they had discussed before.

Oral Practice

Letter of Confirmation. Visiting a Plant

Letters of confirmation either acknowledge receiving of a document or confirm the previous arrangement.

Mr Hemingway

Export Manager

Primrose & Co 21.10.1996

Dear Mr Hemingway,

We thank you for your fax of 19th Nov. this year informing us about the possibility to visit your plant.

We are pleased that we have established business relations with you and hope that our cooperation will be to the mutual benefit.

Yours faithfully

David Copper

Exercise 1. Listen to the dialogue, learn it by heart and make a dialogue

of your own using the models.

Hemingway - Before I show you round the plant I'd like to give you some

basic information about what we are doing here. As you may

know, our plant is the biggest manufacturer of machinery.

Visitor - And what's your total annual output?

Hemingway - We produce about . . . machine-tools every year?

Visitor - Do you export much?

Hemingway - Quite enough considering our home needs, around 40%.

Visitor - How many workers does your plant employ?

Hemingway - About 2000. They work in 3 shifts.

Visitor - And what about new technologies?

Hemingway - The plant is highly mechanized and automated. Now we'll go

round the office block. Here you'll find all administrative

departments: Sales, Accounts, Personnel and Market

Research. This way, please.

Visitor - Your plant is fantastic.

Exercise 2. Make a dialogue.

a) You are a Russian visitor to an American plant.

The Managing Director shows you around.

b) You are showing American colleagues round your plant.

Use the model, given above and the following phrases.

- How do you like the plant?

- What's the capacity of your plant?

- Recently two extensions have been built and this has considerably

increased the production capacity.

- I'm glad to welcome you to our plant

- I'd like to bring up one small point

- Are you thinking of using . . .

- What can you say about environmental protection?

Unit 2

Text 1

Powder Metallurgy

The traditional methods of shaping metals by casting or by hot or cold working are difficult and sometimes impossible to apply to many metals. Such refractory metals include tungsten (m.p. 3380⁰C), molybdenum (2622⁰C) and tantalum (2996⁰C) whose melting points are too high to enable them to be melted by conventional means. In these cases an alternative procedure has emerged based on the fact that metals in powdered form may be caused to adhere together without being melted by employment of high pressure. The technique known as powder metallurgy consists in subjecting the powdered metal contained in a mould or die of the shape desired to a high pressure followed by sintering at a suitable temperature. The method provides either finished metal components or compact blocks of metal for subsequent mechanical working. Having been applied first to the reftactory metals the method has been extended to many of the more tractable metals.

The technique originated more than a century ago. The preparation of compact platinum from the then infusible metal by W.H.Wollaston in 1830 represents one of the earliear applications of powder metallurgy.

Production of powder of the requisite properties is an important stage in the procedure of powder metallurgy. Powders of metals and alloys may be produced by mechanical methods such as grinding, machining and milling; other metal powders can be obtained by reduction of the metal oxide by hydrogen or carbon. Copper, iron, cobalt, molybdenum and tungsten can all be so prepared in powder form from their oxides. Electrolysis is also used, and aluminium, tin, and lead are transformed into powder form by atomization, molten metal being poured through an orifice into a chamber and sprayed with a high pressure jet of inert gas, the instantaneous chilling converting the metal into a finely divided dust.

At the present day powder metallurgy is mainly used in making large numbers of identical components usually of relatively small size, such as permanent magnets, coins, medals, small gear wheels and brushes for motors and dynamos. A novel extenstion of its application is in the manufacture of the oil-less bearing which can be impregnated with oil and made self-lubricating. Such bearings are designed to retain within their structure a sufficient amount of oil to last for several years.

Task 1. Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn how to pronounce the words given below:

molybdenum /mo'libdin?m/; tantalum /'t?nt?l?m/; alternative /o:l't?:n?tiv/;

adhere /?d'hi?/; technique /tek'ni:k/; tractable /'trжkt?bl/; orifice /'orifis/;

subject /s?b'jekt/.

Task 2. Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-combinations

given below and use them in the sentences of your own.

тугоплавкие металлы; молибден; тантал; обычный; прилипать; с применением высокого давления; требуемые свойства; выделение (металла); отверстие (насадка); распылять; шестерня; подшипник; пропитывать; порошковая металлургия; подвергать; самое ранне применение порошковой металлургии.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combination given below

with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the sentences

of your own.

1. hot working 1. ковкие металлы

2. cold working 2. точка плавления

3. melting point 3. новейшие дополнительные

4. tractable metals возможности применения

5. a novel extention of this 4. автоматически смазываемый

application 5. холодная обработка

6. self-lubricating 6. достаточное количество ч-л

7. a sufficient amoun of 7. горячая обработка

8. the then infusible metal 8. в то время тугоплавкий металл

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. Why are the traditional methods of shaping metals sometimes impossible to apply? 2. What does the technique of powder metallurgy consist in? 3. When was the technique of powder metallurgy applied first? 4. Where is powder metallurgy mainly used at the present day?

Exercise 4. Paraphrase the following sentences, using the words and

phrases given below.

1. These metals can't be melted by usual means. 2. At last he succeeded in the experiment. The following efforts were connected with practical application of the results. 3. The application of powder metallurgy was spread to many other metals. 4. Production of powder of necessary properties was an important step forward. 5. Nowadays computers are widely used in metal processing. 6. These two samples are quite similar. 7. A new application of this method allows to increase productivity. 8. The tank could keep a sufficient amount of oil to warm the house for winter.

requisite, conventional, retain, identical, extend, novel,

at the present day, subsequent.

Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into Russian at sight, paying

attention to a word in italics. You will find a clue to its meaning

in an antonym or a contrasting idea. It is called learning new

words from the context ( a context is the part of a passage in

which a word is used and which helps to explain that word.)

In this exercise you will find contexts with contrasting words.

1. I tried to read his notes, and found them illegible, but I could easily read your notes. 2. If you agree, write `yes', if you dissent write `no'. 3. I do not shrink from this responsibility, I welcome it. 4. Dad is an experienced driver, but Mum is a novice; she began taking lessons only last month. 5. Dad was sure I had broken his PC, but when my sister said she had done it, I was exonerated. 6. There is no enough place to construct the new plant; it is necessary to demolish two old buildings. 7. She is always late, but today she was punctual.

Exercise 6. Give a written translation of the following texts.

1. In recent years there has been a marked extension in the application of hydrometallurgical processes to low grade ores due largely to the introduction of new techniques such as ion-exchange, solvent extraction and high temperature and high pressure methods. Ion-exchange used for the softening of water has found employment in the purification and enrichment of the solution resulting from the acid leach of uranium ore. Solvent extraction widely employed in the petroleum industry is now used in the separation and recovery of uranium, tantalum, etc. High pressure and high temperatures have long been utilized in the chemical industry but it is only comparatively recently that their usefulness has been recognized in connection with hydrometallurgical processes. The first plant employing high pressure and temperature was initiated in Canada at Fort Saskatchewan in 1953 for the treatment of nickel-copper-cobalt sulphide ore, and it has since been followed by similar plants in America and Cuba.

2. Tungsten (m.p. 3380⁰C) is another metal which was developed through the advent of powder metallurgy. As obtained by reduction of its oxide, tungsten is a grey brittle powder. Because of its high melting point it had for long been recognized that the metal would be eminently suitable for electric lamp filaments, but because of its brittleness, attempts to draw the metal resulted in failure.

Task 3. Focus on Grammar

The Conditionals

The Conditionals are used for prediction the future in scientific investigation. Prediction is a part of every field of science. In enineering it is necessary to predict the effects of a new invention.

1. The First Conditional is used to express a possible condition and a probable result. Therefore it is used for probable prediction

Form: condition result

if + Present Simple will + base form of a verb

If the weather is good, we'll go for a walk.

Если погода будет хорошая, мы пойдем гулять.

You won't pass the exam if you don't study hard.

Вы не сдадите экзамен если не будете много заниматься.

What will you do if you don't find her?

Что вы будете делать, если не найдете ее?

If neon is given an electric charge, it will glow.

Если через неон пропустить электрический заряд, он будет

светиться.

A Future tense is not used in the condition

2. The Second Conditional is used to express a hypothetical condition and its probable result. Therefore it is used for hypothetical prediction.

Form: condition result

if + Past Simple would + base form of a verb

a) the condition is hypothetical because the speaker knows that what he is saying is improbable, impossible or contrary to known facts.

If you needed my advice I would give it to you.

(but I know you don't need it.)

Если бы вам нужен был мой совет, я бы вам его дал.

If the molten iron in the Bessemer converter were blown inproperly,

the final product would be spoilt.

Если бы расплавленный чугун в бессемеровском конвертере

не продувался надлежащим образом, конечный продукт был

бы испорченю

b) the condition can be possible in theory but improbable in practice.

If I were Minister of Education I would abolish the entrance exams.

c) it can express advice

If I were you I wouldn't do it.

3. The Third Conditional is used when a condition and a result refer to the past. Therefore it is used for impossible prediction.

Form: condition result

if + Past Perfect would + Perfect Infinitive

If I had had enough time yesterday I would have come to your party.

Если бы у меня было время вчера, я бы пришел на твою вечеринку.

If the compound had been an acid, it would have destroyed the plastic material.

Eсли бы это соединение являлось кислотой, оно бы разрушило пластик.

4. Mixed Conditionals - when condition and result refer to different time.

If she were in London she would have visited you yesterday.

5. Alternative forms:

a) `if' can be replaced by `unless' or `in case':

unless = if . . . not in case = if by any chance

I'll come by 8 o'clock unless I hear from you.

I'll take my umbrella in case it rains.

b) `will' can be replaced by another modal verb in the result clause:

If you find him, you can tell him about our meeting.

(or you should tell him about our meeting)

c) `will' can be replaced by an imperative:

If you find him tell him about our meeting.

d) `will' can be replaced by another future tense:

If you find time I am going to play tennis.

e) the Present Simple can be replaced by the Present Perfect in a conditional clause:

If you have never been there you should visit this place.

Exercise 1. Put the verb into the correct form.

1. If I were asked about it, I think I (to give) the right answer. 2. Many people would be out of work if this plant (to close) down. 3. If I knew his number I (to telephone) him. 4. If I (to be) you I wouldn't buy this hat. 5. In case she comes we (to leave) a message for her. 6. In case you (to come) to London you must visit us. 7. I can't go to his party unless he (to invite) me. 8. If I had had time yesterday I (to join) you for a set of tennis. 9. If I (to enter) the Institute last year I wouldn't have had to try again. 10. If you gave me a dictionary I (can) translate this article. 11. If you (to take) my advice you wouldn't have failed at the exam. 12. You won't pass the exam unless you (to study) more. 13. If I had seen you when you passed me in the street I (to say) hello. 14. I drew a map for her in case she (can) find our house.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions

1. Where would you go if you had your vacation now? 2. Would you change your mind about your future profession if you were leaving school this year? 3. What would you do if you were Minister of Education? 4. What would happen if you missed several lessons of English? 5. How would you spend your money if you were a very rich person? 6. How would you behave if you lost your way in an unknown town? 7. Who would you ask for help if you found yourself in a difficult situation? 8. What would you like to do if you had more free time?

Exercise 3. Write conditional sentences combining types 2 and 3

for the following situations:

Model: She is a very reliable person. That's why I always asked

her for advice. -> I wouldn't have asked her for advice

if she were not a very reliable person.

1. I'm afraid of travelling by air, so I had to go to Paris by train. 2. She does not know anything about geometry, so she couldn't help him to do his homework.

3. I didn't look after my teeth and now I visit the dentist twice a week. 4. You are so naive. How could you believe all the lies he told you? 5. I'm going out to the theatre tonight, so I couldn't accept his invitation to go round for a meal. 6. I have too much work so yesterday I couldn't go to his party. 7. It's such a lovely day today but I can't swim because I haven't brought my swimming costume.

Exercise 4. Complete the following predictions in any logical or imaginative way, using the correct verb-form.

1. The air would be cleaner if… 2. Plants will not grow if… 3. If he couldn't join this project, he … 4. If she were on a diet … 5. If we coul control the weather…

Exercise 5. Translate the sentences into Russian, paying attention to the use of the Conditionals.

If we turn to the common metals, we'll find that they have “metallic luster”. 2. A steel-maker would call such substances as sulphur and phosphorous impurities in the iron ore. 3. It is quite clear that if this equipment were provided with automatic loading mechanism, the production would be fulfilled in time. 4. It would take a longer article than this one to describe the operations in a large modern steel plant. 5. Try to imagine if all iron and steel were completely taken away from our civilization. 6. If English pig iron had been free from phosphorous, Bessemer would not have failed at first when working with it.

Exercise 6. Translate the dialogues given below and make up dialogues

of your own using the patterns.

Paul - My advice to you is that you shouldn't get married before graduating.

Jack - Yes, but even if I had a diploma, would I be much wiser?

Paul - If you had a diploma you'd have a better start in life.

Jack - Do you think the firm would give me a rise if I graduated?

Paul - I am sure they would. You'd have to work hard of course, but I think

you'd get a rise very quickly.

Jack - If I worked harder I'd get a rise anyway. The only touble is I can't

work harder than I do, I get tired and bored very quickly.

Fred - I'm awfully disappointed you didn't let me know Betty was in

London last week. If only we had been together for one day

my dreams would have come true.

Bill - You mean, if you'd been together for one single day you'd probably

have got married? You ought to be grateful to me for having saved

you from that.

Fred - No it's only that if you'd written to me, I'd probably have earned a

lot of money.

Bill - What on earth do you mean?

Fred - Her uncle is a well-known critic. If I had seen Betty she would have

spoken to him and he'd probably have helped me to publish my new

collection of lyrics.

Bill - Do you mean those you've written for Ann?

Fred - Yes.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

Look through the text and find answers to the following questions:

1. Is Canada rich in mineral resources?

2. When did people start searching for gold in Canada?

3. Was their search for gold a success?

4. What branch of metallurgy is of vital importance for Canada?

5. Will it be possible to avoid atmospheric pollution by developing a hydro-metallurgical method for the commercial production of copper?

Metallurgy in Canada

Canada is richly endowed with mineral wealth: it ranks among the world's largest producers of minerals. A great deal of Canada's history is closely entwined with mineral exploration and development, beginning with Frobisher's serach for illusory gold in the 16th century. Coal in Nova Scotia and iron ore in Quebec were discovered and later mined in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Geological Survey of Canada founded in 1842, encouraged the collection of information about Canada's minerals. In the next decade came the first gold rush - to Barkerville in the Gariboo district of British Columbia. Silver, zinc and lead were subsequently found in the Kootenay district, as well as the riches in copper and nickel.

The most famous event in Canadian mining history undoubtedly was the Klondike gold rush of 1896, but more significant have been the discoveries in the 20th century of cobalt, silver, uranium, asbestos and potash among other minerals, as well as more copper, nickel and iron ore.

The production of steel is vital to the development of all sectors of the Canadian economy, including energy. There are three separate projects that are attmpting to circumvent the need for the blast furnace and dependence on coking coal. One steel company has developed the rotary kiln process for the direct reduction of iron ore. Another is operating a pilot plant at Niagara Falls, Ont., on a rotary kiln process, also for direct reduction of iron ore. The Metals Reduction and Energy Centre of the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources (EMR) has successfully demonstrated a process called the Shaft Electric Reduction Furnace (SERF), which utilizes the waste gases from an electric reduction furnace to preheat and pre-reduce iron ore.

Two mineral processing companies have co-operated on a multi-million dollar, multi-year project to develop a hydro-metallurgical method for the commercial production of copper. This technique would avoid atmospheric pollution which typifies copper smelters, and be environmentally acceptable. Moreover, the process would recover sulphur, rather than having it emitted to the environment. The successful commercialization of this process would give Canada a strong position in copper production in an era when environmental concerns are forcing restrictions on the traditional smelters.

Task 2. Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Which of the three answers best matches the meaning

of the italicized word in the following sentences?

1. Canada is richly endowed with mineral wealth.

a) abundantly b) endlessly c) sufficiently

2. We spent a great deal of time with them.

a) a major part of b) much c) a longer part of

3. The history of these two countries is closely entwined with gold rush.

a) doubled b) connected c) dependent

4. This factor is vital to the development of economy.

a) important b) notable c) crucial

5. Implementing this technique we'll be able to avoid atmospheric pollution.

a) eliminate b) evade c) keep aside

Exercise 2. Look through the text again and write out the words

connected with a) metals, b) metal processing

Exercise 3. Arrange the jumbled text given below.

Electricity

1.It was in 1831 that he had his greatest success. With simple apparatus, consisting of a magnet, a copper disc, and wire, he made or induced an electric current. It meant that this magic force could at last be produced at will. It was the beginning of the dynamo, or electric generator, which produces the electricity used for power and light throughout the modern world.

2. Faraday was the son of a Yorkshire blacksmith who moved to London, where young Michael began his working life as errand boy to a bookbinder. But his one interest was science and in 1812, when he was 21, he wrote to the famous Sir Humphrey Davy and was made his assistant. He was so successful that when Sir Humphrey died, Faraday succedded him as Professor at the Royal Institution.

3. Man has known of the existence of a mysterious force called electricity since ancient days; there is even a mention of it in the year 600 B.C. But it is only in the past hundred-and-fifty years that we have discovered how to use electricity. The first important discoveries were made by an Italian scientist Volta. In 1880 he made batteries which gave out electricity. But it was a British scientists Michael Faraday, who made the greatest discoveries.

4. Faraday made a number of important discoveries in chemistry, but his greatest work was on electricity. He studied the work of previous scientists and spent twenty years experimenting to find out how to make electricity.

Oral Practice

Letters of Gratitude. At a Business Meeting

__________________________________________________________________________

Mr Hemingway

Export Manager

Primrose & Co

Dear Mr Hemingway,

I have just returned home and would like to thank you most sincerely for your hospitality and a very useful around the plant.

I would much appreciate your return visit to our plant and hope to be of similar assistance to you when you come.

Thank you very much again for one of the most enjoyable visits we have had to your country.

We look forward to extending our cooperation.

Yours sincerely

_________________________________________________________________________

Useful sentences:

1. I would like to thank you most warmly

2. Thank you ever so much for . . .

3. This is to thank you very much for . . .

4. Thank you for doing so much to make our trip to . . . interesting and fruitful

5. Thank you for contributing so much to make our stay so pleasant and resultful

6. I am very grateful for your generous hospitality

7. I hope I shall be able to reciprocate your kindness

At a Business Meeting

Hemingway - Good morning, everybody. We have two points on the agenda

today. Point 1 is our visit to Moscow to get acquianted with

the work of the Steel Plant. We have been offered a quite

interesting programme. You all have it. Do you want to put

forward any proposals or amendments? Well, who'd like to

start the ball rolling?

John - May I begin? First of all I am strongly for the cooperation which

seems to be mutually beneficial. Being Personnel Manager I would

like to know more about their labour regulations.

Hemingway - All right, Jane. We'll notify our Russian colleagues about that.

Who's next?

Bill - As far as I am Production Manager, I'm interested in their annual

output, modernization of production and like.

Hemingway - I think it is all on the programme.

Bill - Yes, but I'd like to discuss it in detail.

Hemingway - All right. I'm interested in the sums allocated for improving

the workshops. And now let us discuss Point 2: improving

office accomodation.

John - I have a suggestion. Let us vote on this issue. I think we are all

in favour.

Exercise 1. You have just returned from a business trip. You've been

perfectly welcomed and the hosts have shown you

everything you wanted. Write a letter of gratitude.

Exercise 2. You are presiding at a business meeting. Among the

participants there are: a Chief Accountant, a Production

Manager and an Export Manager. You are discussing the

export of machinery, price, terms of delivery. First fix the

agenda of the meeting.

Unit 3

Text 1

Atmospheric Pollution: The Invisible Threat

Air pollution has been tackled with some success in the developed countries. Smoke and sulphur pollution has been cut markedly, although auto pollution remains a problem in many urban areas. Simultaneously, however, several countries of Europe and North America experience growing problems with acid rain - whether they cause such problems or suffer from them. And the cities of the Third World, from Bombay to Mexico City, are experiencing air pollution, whether from domestic, industrial or vehicular sources.

Acid rain is now the most controversial form of air pollution in the developed world. Factories spew forth sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides, which dissolve in rain before returning to earth as sulphuric and nitric acids. The chief sources of such emissions tend to be electrical generating plants, industrial boilers, and large smelters. Gases that are vented into the air by tall smokestacks get caught up in prevailing winds where, in the course of transport over land, they are transformed into dilute solutions of sulphuric and nitric acids. Their deposition as acid rain can have dire effects on ecosystems. Acidified water leaches important plant nutrients out of the ground and activates heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury, contaminating water supplies.

In parts of Pennsylvania, the result is a corrodive solvent 1,000 times as acidic as natural rain. Equally to the point, the pollutants are dispersed through the atmosphere, until they descend far removed from their point of origin, often in another country.

To date, this phenomenon hits worst at northeastern Canada, parts of the US, Central Europe, and Scandinavia - though Australia and Brazil are noticing early signs of this silent scourage. Thousands of lakes are now lifeless, unable to support fish of many sorts. In West Germany, the Black Forest is losing one-third of its trees, and many scientists attribute this trend to a combination of acid rain and other forms of air pollution. Damage to the West German timber industry is estimated at $ 800 million per year (plus $ 600 million to agriculture through loss of soil fertility). West Germans believe that at least half of the acid rain deposited on their forests comes from outside their country.

Another serious problem is lead pollution. Each year 450,000 tonnes of lead are released into the air by humans, compared with 3,500 tonnes from natural sources. Lead from vehicle exhaust represents more than half of this pollution. Lead is added to petrol to improve its combustion properties, and released to the air as fine particles.

These are not the only examples of a barbaric attitude to Nature. Environmental protection on an international scale is badly needed since the pollution does not recognize national frontiers.

Task 1 Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn to pronounce the words given below:

pollution / p?`lu:??n/; simultaneously / sim?l'teinj?sli/; acid /'жsid/; vehicular /vi'hikjul?/; controversial / kontr?`v?:??l/; dilute /dai'lju:t/; pollutant /p? `lu:t?nt/; phenomenon /fi'nomin?n/; scourge /sko:j/; vehicle /vi: ikl/.

Task 2 Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word- combinations

given below and use them in the sentences of your own.

загрязнение воздуза, городские районы, одновременно, кислотные дожди, спорный, растворять, выброс в атмосферу, выпускать (газ, дым), дымовая труба, слабый раствор, тяжелые металлы, явление, бедствие, оцениваться в, плодородие, признавать границы.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the

sentences of your own.

1. growing problems 1. основной источник

2. experience air pollution 2. лесообрабатывающая про-

мышленность

3. the chief source 3. едкий раствор

4. to get caught up 4. поразить больше всего, нанести

5. corrosive solvent наибольший вред

6. to date 5. испытывать действие загрязнения

7. to hit worst атмосферы

8. to attribute to 6. растущие проблемы

9. timber industry 7. быть захваченным

8. до настоящего времени

9. основной источник

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What types of atmospheric pollution are a great problem in many urban areas? 2. Why is acid rain the most controversial form of air pollution in the developed countries? 3. Is lead pollution a serious problem nowadays? 4. What dangerous consequences of atmospheric pollution do you know?

Exercise 4. Paraphrase the following sentences, using the words and

phrases given below.

1. Air pollution has been tackled with some success in the developed

countries.

2. Smoke and sulphur pollution has been cut markedly.

3. Acid rain is now the most controversial form of atmospheric pollution.

4. Acid rain contaminates soil and water.

5. The pollution does not recognize national frontiers.

6. Atmospheric pollution hits worst the developed countries.

7. Soil fertility is decreasing due to atmospheric pollution.

__________________________________________________________________

usual; poisons; borders; undertaken; decreased; productiveness; strikes

Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into Russian at sight,

paying attention to a word in italics. You will find a clue

to its meaning in a synonym or a similar idea. It is called

learning new words from contexts with similar words.

1. Why are you so timorous? I tell you there is nothing to be afraid of. 2. Some children who are reserved with strangers are not at all uncommunicative with friends. 3. Jerry thought he saw a ship in the distance. I looked carefully but could perceive nothing. 4. The Empire State Building, which has more than a hundred stories, is the world's tallest edifice. 5. I understand the first problem, but I can not comprehend the second one. 6. Few rivers in industrialized areas are devoid of pollution though more rivers in rural districts are without it. 7. In warm climates, water is sometimes heated by solar energy - sun rays are very strong there. 8. Students attending private schools pay tuition. In public schools they do not pay for instruction. 9. The pollutants are dispersed through the atmosphere, and through atmosphere they spread all over the world.

Exercise 6. Give a written translation of the following texts.

1. In the 1970s it became clear that the rain was changing. The rain was becoming a dilute mixture of acids. Rainwater, of course, had always been slightly acidic because the water dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide, forming carbonic acids. But now the rain was showing alarming concentrations of the more dangerous sulphuric and nitric acids. They were the result of accumulations of nitrous oxides and sulphuric oxides in the atmosphere. The nitrous oxides, it turned out, were from power plant and automobile emissions; the sulphuric oxides, mainly from power plants and smelters.

2. Entire patches of forests worldwide are sickening and dying as ecologists try to find out just what effects the rain is having. In fact, such studies have masked action by the polluting countries. The Reagan administration (undoubtedly under heavy attack of industrial lobbyists) refused steadfastly for years to take action. Instead, it initiated one “study” after another, finally admitting in 1985 that there was a problem and that it had to do with industrial pollution.

Interestingly, the solution is clear to everyone. We simply need to reduce the levels of our effluent from power plants, smelters and automobiles. Most of the technology exists, but its implementation would be too expensive for the polluters to willingly bear. Are we willing to pay higher prices for manufactured goods to save our lakes and rivers? The question is a fundamental one and is asked over and over in one form or another in today's technological world.

3. Acidification ranks among the most serious threats to the environment in the northern hemisphere. Heavily industrialized areas pump some 90 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide into the air each year. Hardest hit are southern Sweden, Norway, parts of central Europe, and the eastern part of North America. Some 18,000 lakes in Sweden alone are now so acidified that fish stocks have been severely reduced. In Bavaria and other areas of central Europe, whole forests are dying.

Task 3 Focus on Grammar

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

1. We use the past for a present situation after wish. We use wish to say that we regret something, that something is not as we would like it to be.

I wish I knew her address.

I wish it didn't rain today.

I wish I had known Ann was in Moscow. I would have gone

to see her. (I didn't know she was in Moscow.)

2. We use the past for a present situation after as if, as though

She looks as if she were ill.

She looks as though she had been ill for a long time.

3. We use the construction should + Simple(Perfect) Infinitive after:

a) it is necessary; it is desirable; it is important; it is strange; it is advisable; etc.

It is strange that they should not have come.

b) certain verbs: to suggest; to demand; to insist; to order; to arrange; to request; etc.

He suggested that we should go there.

I doubt that they should have seen this film.

Exercise 1. Use the correct form of a verb.

1. I wish I (to be) ten years younger. 2. She speaks English as if she (to live) in England for many years. 3. It is important that everybody (to take part) in the discussion tomorrow. 4. He wished he never (to do) it. He felt he had lost her for ever. 5. He knows these places as though he (to be born) here. 6. It is necessary that teacher and pupils (to respect) each other. 7. I wish I (to follow) your instructions: I wouldn't have lost so much time. 8. He insisted we (to leave) for the country as soon as possible. 9. It was surprising that she (to fail) to answer such easy questions. 10. Do you wish you (to study) languages instead of science? 11. She behaved in class as if she (to be) an experienced teacher. 12. It is desirable that the students (to speak) only English during the lessons. 13. I wish you (can) understand all your mistakes. 14. It is necessary you (to read) more English books. 15. It is understandable that she (to refuse) the invitation yesterday. 16. We suggested that we (to go) to London next year.

Exercise 2. Imagine that you are in a situation. For each situation

make a sentence with “I wish . . .”

1. I am not playing tennis (and I want to). I say: I wish . . .

2. You have just returned from yout trip. Everything was good except the hotel.

You say: “I wish . . .”

3. George lives in Liverpool but he hates it. He says: “I wish . . .”

4. I can't give up smoking (but I'd like to). I say:”I wish . . .”

5. She is late for the lecture and missed the beginning. She says:”I wish . . .”

6. You have just bought a new jacket, but now you think it is not very nice.

You say: “I wish . . .”

7. Ann couldn't see a very interesting talk-show on TV yesterday. She says: “I wish ..”

8. Your friend has left Moscow for a long time. You had no time to see him before it.

You say: “I wish . . .”

Exercise 3. Translate the sentences into Russian, paying attention to the use of Subjunctive Mood.

It is necessary that everybody be aquianted with this method. 2. To get a perfect mirror it is important that tin exactly and evenly cover the glass. 3. The engineer advises that this detail should be removed and replaced by another. 4. The manufacture of this detail requires that maximum precautions be taken. 5. The shop is operating successfully as if some innovations had been introduced. 6. The scientific method of investigation requires that the problem should be postulated, and after that the data or experimental facts be collected. 7. I wish all the students could pass this exam. 8. Because the metal in the centre is hotter than that near the walls of furnace, it is in constant motion as if it were boiling. 9. It is essential that the distinction between “quantity of heat” and “temperature” should be clearly understood. 10. It would be an error to say that carbon alone brings about the differences between steel and cast iron. 11. But for this disadvantage, the modernized process would answer all necessary requirements.

Exercise 4. Translate the dialogues given below and make up dialogues

of your own using the patterns.

Ann - I wish I knew how to get rich.

Betty - I think you'd better ask Mr.Ford. He knows.

Ann - I know he does. I only wish he would be my teacher.

Betty - I expect he will if you ask him to.

Jack - I wish I knew where Betty was.

Paul - I know. She's in the country. She's staying with her Uncle Tom

on his farm.

Jack - I didn't know that. She was never fond of country life. I wish she

would get tired of her uncle and his sheep and cows and come back

to London. We are all missing her very much here.

Paul - I think it's necessary that she should stay there longer. She looks

as if she had hard time.

Jack - Really. I wish I knew what has happened.

Paul - You ought to go to see her. Aunt Flora is going there. She might

give you a lift.

Jack - That's a splendid idea. I'm sure she'll give me a lift if she is going.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

Agree or disagree with the following statements after reading the text.

1. Education in Canada is strictly centralized.

2. Departments of education are not engaged in determining courses of study and

lists of textbooks.

3. Vocational education includes all training for occupations.

4. The aim of vocational education is to develop manipulative skills.

5. Technical education requires high school graduation for entrance.

6. Technical education is centred around the application of ideas and principles.

7. The applicants without the required academic background do not have a chance to

proceed with vocational training.

8. Those who have no English or French proficiency can take language training at

many vocational centres.

Education in Canada

Under the British North America Act, Section 93, the provinces are generally responsible for education, except for federally-sponsored schools for Indian and Inuit (Eskimo) students, children of servicemen in Europe and inmates of federal penitentiaries. In addition the federal government helps finance tertiary education in the provinces, participates in informal education and makes grants-in-aid for research personnel and equipment.

Provincial autonomy has resulted in the development of distinctive educational systems in the various provinces. There are, however, certain similarities. Each province and territory has established a department of education headed by a minister who is a member of the Cabinet, and administered by a deputy minister who, as a public servant, advises the minister and administers legislation relating to education. Each department of education is engaged in supervising the quality of educational systems, certifying teachers, providing financial assistance to school boards and determining courses of study and lists of textbooks.

Changes in the original departments of education in some provinces have created a second governmental department dealing exclusively with post-secondary education. Provinces with two departments concerned with education are Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, and Saskatchewan. In addition, Quebec has established two directorates within its department of education, one concerned with universities and the other with colleges.

Technical and Vocational Education

In the last decade there has been a rapid development of vocational and technical education in Canada. For the purposes of this presentation vocational education includes all training (the great majority of cases not requiring a complete high school education for entrance) for occupations requiring varying degrees of skill normally taking less than one year to acquire, and in the performance of which greater emphasis is placed on manipulative skills and pre-determined procedures rather than on the application of ideas and principles. Technical education prepares students for occupations that require high school graduation for entrance, and at least one year's training (and usually two to three). This schooling requires the application of ideas and principles in a semi-professional role.

Vocational training is available in publicly operated trade schools and similar institutions, in private trade schools and business colleges, in provincially registered apprenticeship programs, in publicly supported training-in-industry programs for employees and in on-the-job training programs introduced as a measure to offset unemployment. Institutions similar to public (provincially operated) trade schools include adult vocational centres, trade divisions of community colleges and schools for specific occupations such as nursing aid schools, forestry schools, and police and firefighters training establishments. Not included in this discussion are vocational and composite high schools. While in some provinces the courses offered in these secondary schools continue to provide training leading to employment, changing aims and school organizations have made the distinction between academic and vocational students less and less recognizable.

In instances where applicants do not have the required academic background to proceed with vocational training, there are upgrading courses to bring trainees to the required educational level. Many vocational centres also offer language training for those who do not have the proficiency in either English or French to receive instruction in a vocational course. Short “orientation” courses are also made available that guide trainees into the proper skill areas and help them brush up prerequisite skills.

Task 2. Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Answer the questions.

1. What is the difference between technical and vocational education?

2. What is on-the-job training?

Exercise 2. From the choices given below each sentence choose one

word or phrase which means the same as the italicized one.

1. One department of education is concerned with universities and the other with colleges.

a) connected b) responsible for c) proud of

2. These buildings were built in the last decade.

a) century b) age c) ten years.

3. The time for discussing the problem is over; now we must act.

a) arguing about b) talking about c) putting off

4. The scientists examined the composition of the new alloy very closely.

a) processed b) inspected c) compared

5. Where did she acquire all her wealth?

a) gain b) loose c) steal

6. His hobby is collecting stamps from all over the world.

a) business b) vocation c) past-time

7. He has no academic background so he can not take this job.

a) surroundings b) education c) career

8. Several federal funds have been reduced recently.

a) put off b) put back c) cut off

Exercise 3. Enlarge on the following quotations.

1. A little learning is a dangerous thing. ( A. Pope)

2. Desire to appear cleverer often prevents us from becoming so. (O.Wilde)

3. Will and intellect are one and the same thing. (Spinoza)

Oral Practice

Business Correspondence: Letters of Confirmation

Exercise 1. You have invited your business partners to visit your plant.

Write the letter of confirmation saying that you look

forward to their visiting the plant October,21.

Some useful phrases:

in confirmation of our conversation of June 1st;

we confirm out fax (telex, telephone conversation) by this letter;

we are pleased to confirm . . .;

we confirm our agreement reached by telephone today.

Exercise 2. Here are two jumbled letters. One is written to a friend and

the other is an information letter to a firm. Both letters were

written by Susan Key. Her friend is called Jenny Collins. The

address of the firm is Beta Ltd, 33 Regent Str., Kent CT 5VH.

Decide which sentences go with which letter. Think of the

address, salutation and endings. Write replies to both letters.

1. Yours faithfully, Susan Key.

2. I would like to tell you that we have received the last copy of your bulletin.

3. I'm writing to tell you I've lost the copy of the bulletin, you've lended to me.

4. I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.

5. I am also glad to inform you that we should be honoured to meet you at our

premises.

6. We look forward to seeing you soon.

7. Dear Ms Beecher.

8. I'm really sorry, and will try to replace it as soon as I can.

9. I hope you'll find time at last to visit us at our new home.

10. Love, Susan.

11. I woul be grateful if you come.

12. Please, inform us about your arrival in advance.

13. It'll be great and we'll have a grand party.

14. There are good opportunities for our cooperation.

15. Dear Jenny!

Unit 4

Text 1

The Mineral Reserve and New Materials

The mineral reserve of our planet is being gradually exhausted. Where once we used crude machines to pick minerals almost from the earth's surface, today we use dynamic and massive machines to extract these minerals.

Industry depends heavily on some 80 minerals, including a number which, like aluminium and iron, are in relatively plentiful supply. True, a few countries will soon exhaust their domestic supplies of such materials, but there is enough elsewhere to go round, without the risk of cartelized cutbacks on production and supply.

A small number of minerals, however, qualify as strategic commodities. That is, they are critically important to industry, while being in relatively short supply. Chromium, for example, does more than put a shine on bumpers; it also contributes to irreplaceable alloys used in tool steel and in jet engines. Manganese is essential for high-grade steels. Platinum is used for catalytic converters, which are at the heart of many auto-emission control systems, and for advanced communications equipment. Cobalt is crucial for high-strength, high-temperature alloys used in aerospace.

Minerals are an integral part of diplomacy. Each country tries to ensure access to those minerals which affect its vital national interests, especially defence. Strategically important minerals are vulnerable to interruptions of supply, often for political reasons. Lacking indigenous supplies, many Western countries have been building up stockpiles of such minerals as manganese, chromium, cobalt and platinum. One unintended effect of stockpiles is to even out the sharp fluctuations in mineral prices. Substitution and recycling can also be strategic options, boosting supply.

Recycling has become a vitally important process. Almost half the iron needed for steel-making now comes from scrap and nearly a third of the aluminium. Recycling can bring major energy savings. For example, the energy required to produce one tonne of secondary aluminium from scrap is only 5% of the energy used to extract and process primary metal from ore. Scrap is now a vital source of supply for metals. Recycling plays an important role in environmental protection, because we can get rid of metal scrap without spoiling the surroundings.

Another way of mineral wealth preservation is substitution. Metals that are easy to substitute include antimony, cadmium, selenium, tellurium, and tin. Tin has been losing out to glass, plastics, steel, and aluminium in the can-making and packaging industries: aluminium now accounts for over 90% of all US drinks cans. But substitution is no panacea: platinum is an unrivalled catalyst and stainless steel depends on chromium.

In recent years the ability to model new materials on computer has opened whole new vistas of materials development, providing a theoretical basis for what has traditionally been an empirical science. This work is based on the crystalline structure of all metals and most other solid materials.

The characteristics of a given era are often fundamentally affected by the most advanced type of material available. Thus we have such eras as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, and the Steel Age. Based on advancing materials technology, the ages of history have changed. Yet even in the advanced scientific era, materials development has until recently remained primarily an empirical process.

Today, the end of the Steel Age and the end of empirical materials science appear to be at hand. We are now on the threshold of an age expected to be dominated by exotic new materials, created in our scientific laboratories and featuring made-to-order chemical and physical properties. The searches for new materials are very promising and will help our planet to survive.

Task 1. Phonetic Exercise

Practise after the speaker and learn how to pronounce the words given below:

reserve /ri'z?:v/; gradually / 'grжdju?li/; exhausted /ig'zo:stid/; dynamite /'dain?mait/; strategic /str?`ti:jik/; irreplaceable / iri'pleis?bl/; crucial /'kru:sj?l/; access /'жkses/; technology /t'k'nol? ji/; threshold /'?re(h)ould/.

Task 2. Lexical Exercises

Exercise 1. Find the English equivalents for the words and word-

combinations given below. Use them in the sentences

of your own.

запас, исчерпывать (ресурсы), сокращение производства, поставки, стратегические товары, высококачественный, незаменимый, чутко реагировать на, по политическим причинам, колебание цен, металлолом, жизненно важный источник, выравнивать, выбор, на пороге новой эры, сделанный по заказу, компьютерное моделирование.

Exercise 2. Match the English words and word-combinations given

below with their Russian equivalents. Use them in the

sentences of your own.

1. crude machines 1. домашние запасы

2. to depend heavily on 2. оборудование для новейших

3. in plentiful supply систем коммуникации

4. domestic supplies 3. обеспечить доступ к

5. critically important 4. во многом зависит от

6. advanced communications 5. неотъемлемая часть

equipment 6. примитивные машины

7. to ensure access to 7. очень важный

8. integral part 8. в достаточном количестве

9. boost supply 9. во многом повлиять на

10. fundamentally affect 10. увеличить поставки

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the state of the mineral reserve of our planet? 2. What minerals are qualified as strategic commodities? 3. Why are minerals an integral part of diplomacy? 4. Which minerals come mainly from scrap nowadays? 5. What ways of mineral wealth preservation do you know? 6. Is computer modelling of new materials an empirical science? 7. The characteristics of a given era are affected by the most advanced type of material available, aren't they? 8. What eras in the development of mankind do you know?

Exercise 4. Paraphrase the following sentences, using the words

and phrases given below.

1. Industry depends heavily on some 80 minerals. 2. Cobalt is crucial for high-strength alloys. 3. A small number of minerals qualify as strategic commodities. 4. Recycling can bring major energy savings. 5. Computer modelling opens new vistas of material development. 6. In our advanced scientific era many new materials have come into being. 7. Substitution can't be a universal cure for mineral wealth preservation.

_______________________________________________________________

of primary importance; opportunities; very much; highly developed;

panacea; considerable; products; store

Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into Russian at sight

paying attention to a word in italics. You will find a clue

to its meaning by using common sense. Such contexts in

which you use your general knowledge are called common

sense contexts.

1. The President heads our national Government, the Governor our state government, and the Mayor our municipal government. 2. Every time you cross a busy street against the traffic light, you are putting your life in jeopardy. 3. I cannot tell you the secret unless you promise not to divulge it. 4. My father is a diplomat but I plan to go into some other vocation. 5. The air is fresh. There are no plants in the vicinity of our town. The nearest plant is three miles away. 6. In New York City, Philadelphia, Chicago and other large urban centres air pollution is a serious problem. 7. Before the new building was finished, our institute accomodated only 3,000 students. 8. If you do not want to go there, nobody will try to make you do it against your volition.

Exercise 6. Give a written translation of the following texts.

1. The world steel industry uses scrap for abour 45% of its iron requirements, with some countries reaching 60-75%. The world recession has hit the scrap insudtry hard, but new technologies are increasing the demand for scrap. The most buoyant sector of the US steel industry, for example, uses the “minimill” which is based on electric-arc furnaces and the use of scrap. The US dominates the world ferrous scrap market.

2. Throw away an aluminium soft drink container and you throw away the energy equivalent of half a can of gasoline. It is estimated that 80% of all aluminium used could be recycled, but less than 30% of world production comes from scrap. In 1980, aluminium scrap moving across national boundaries totalled 800,000 tonnes (representing over 5% of world production), a trade valued at 600 million dollars. Over half the aluminium cans used in the US are now recycled, and even more dramatic results will be possible as deposits are charged on cans.

Task 3. Focus on Grammar

Subjunctive

after `would rather/sooner; it is (high) time; if only

`would rather/sooner' are followed by the infinitive without `to' when the subject of `would rather/sooner' is the same as the subject of the following action.

A: Would you like to do it now?

Вы бы хотели сделать это сейчас?

B: I would rather/sooner do it tomorrow.

Я бы лучше сделал это завтра.

If the next action has another subject, `would rather/sooner' requires a past tense.

A: Would you like Peter to go to that party?

Вы бы хотели, чтобы Петр пошел на эту вечеринку?

B: I would rather/sooner he stayed at home.

Я бы хотел, чтобы он остался дома (Я думаю, ему лучше бы остаться

дома)

`It is (high) time' can be followed by the infinitive (or by `for + object + infinitive).

It is time to go there. Пора идти туда.

It is high time for us to start. Нам давно пора отправляться в дорогу.

`It is (high) time' can be followed by `subject + a past tense'

It is time we went there. Пора бы идти туда.

It's high time we started. Давно бы пора отправиться в дорогу.

The difference in the meaning will be:

a) it is (high) time + infinitive states that the correct time has arrived.

b) it is (high) time + past tense means that it is a little late.

If only I were a little taller! Если бы я была повыше ростом!

If only I had known it before! Если бы я знала об этом раньше!

Exercise 1. Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Subjunctive Mood

in subject clauses after `it is (high) time','would rather/sooner'.

1. It is high time you (to change) your opinion about him. 2. Dinner is ready. It is time we (to sit down) to table. 3. I would rather she (to take part) in our conference. 4. Isn't it time the rain (to be stopping)? 5. She would sooner (to quit) the job than (to agree) to do it. 6. It is time you (to start on) research. 7. He would rather (to go) there immediately. 8. It is high time for her (to realize) the importance of the situation. 9. I'm going to have dinner at a luxury restaurant. I'd rather you (to do) not. You might spend too much. 10. It is time you (to start) reading English books. 11. If only we went home earlier today. 12. It is high time for everybody (to come). 13. If only you hadn't spent so much mone yesterday! 14. I would rather you (not to meet) this man any longer. I do not trust him. 15. It is time for you (to understand) such simple things in English. 16. Why are they not back yet? Isn't it high time they (to return)? 17. If only I could do it for you right now.

Text 2

Pre- reading Task

Look through the text and agree or disagree with the following statements.

1. The idea of the National Gallery of Canada appeared with the founding of the

Royal Academy of Arts.

2. From the very beginning the National Gallery was under the direct control of the

Academy of Arts.

3. The Gallery exhibits only Canadian art.

4. Many of the exhibits have been donated by private persons.

5. There is no library in the Gallery but its opening is being discussed now.

6. The Gallery doen't participate in international exhibitions.

7. The Gallery doesn't exhibit contemporary art.

8. The main aim of the Gallery is to promote the public understanding of works of

art.

The National Gallery of Canada

The beginnings of the National Gallery of Canada are associated with the founding of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts in 1880. The Marquis of Lorne, then Governor General, had recommended and assisted in the founding of the Academy and among the tasks he assigned to that institution was the establishment of a National Gallery at the seat of government. Until 1907, the National Gallery was under the direct control of a Minister of the Crown, but in that year, in response to public demand, an Advisory Arts Council, consisting of three persons outside government, was appointed by the government to administer grants to the National Gallery. Three years later, the first professional curator was appointed.

In 1913, the National Gallery was incorporated by Act of Parliament and placed under the administration of a board of trustees appointed by the Governor General in Council; its function was to encourage public interest in the arts and to promote the interests of art throughout the country. Under this management, the Gallery increased its collection and developed into an art institution worthy of international recognition.

The Gallery's collections have been built up along international lines and give the people of Canada an indication of the origins of their traditions. The collection of Canadian art, the most extensive and important in existence, is continually being augmented. Over 60 per cent of all acquisitions since 1966 have been Canadian. There are now more than 13,000 works of art in the collection. Included are many Old Masters, 12 having been acquired from the famous Liechtenstein collection. The Massey collection was presented to the Gallery during 1946-50 by the Massey Foundation. In 1973 an important gift of drawings was donated by Mrs Samuel Bronfman of Montreal in honour of her late husband. There is a growing collection of contemporary art, prints and drawings and diploma works of the Royal Canadian Academy.

The services of the Gallery include the operation of a reference library open to the public, containing more than 45,000 volumes and periodicals on the history of art and other related subjects. An active program of exhibitions, lectures, films and guided tours is maintained for visitors to the Gallery in Ottawa.

The interests of the country as a whole are served by circulating exhibitions, lecture tours, publications, reproductions and films prepared by the National Gallery staff. The Gallery promotes interest in Canadian art abroad by participating in international exhibitions and by preparing major exhibitions of Canadian art for showing in other counties. It also brings important exhibitions from abroad to be shown in Canada.

An important decision for the National Gallery was the government's approval in principle of a new National Gallery building to be erected on Wellington Street between the National Library and the Supreme Court. One important consequence of planning for the future was greater emphasis on promoting the understanding of works of art. Projects initiated toward this end included a monthly exhibition focusing on selected masterpieces, with explanatory slide projections and printed texts. The effort to reach a greater public was also shown in publication of five eight-page journals as substitutes for exhibition catalogues or to complement very expensive and scholarly ones.

Task 2 Comprehension Check

Exercise 1. Paraphrase the italicized words and word-combinations

using the synonyms from the text.

1. The origin of the Church of England is connected with the name of Henry VIII. 2. Answering the public demand the government decided to abolish capital punishment. 3. The Wallace collection was presented to the nation by the widow of Sir Richard Wallace in 1897. 4. The Collection of the British National Gallery is continually being enriched. 5. One of the most important exhibitions at the Tate Gallery is that of John Turner, a well-known English painter. 6. The Tate Gallery was given to the nation by a rich sugar merhcant Sir Henry Tate, who had a taste for the fine arts. 7. The Tate has a range of modern works. 8. The Abbey Theatre Company is the most famous of Dublin theatres which was founded in 1899.

Exercise 2. What do you think about the work of the National Gallery

of Canada, its aim and impact? Compare it with the work of

the Russian Museum of Fine Arts and the Tretyakov Gallery.

What is in common between them?

Exercise 3. Enlarge on the following quotations.

There is no way to success in art but to take off your coat, grind paint, and work like a digger on the railroad, all day and every day.

(Ralph W.Emerson)

If sometimes our great artists have been the most critical of our society it is because their sensitivity and their concern for justice which must motivate any true artist makes him aware that our nation falls short of its highest potential.

(John F.Kennedy)

The artists can express everything. (O.Wilde)

To know is nothing at all, to imagine is everything. (A.France)

A minute's success pays the failure of years. (R.Browning)

Exercise 4. Arrange the jumbled text given below.

The National Museum of Science and Technology

1. The newly opened observatory houses Canada's largest telescope which is used for evening educational programs. Also available is resource material from a 10,000 volume library which places special emphasis on a retrospectrive collection of Canadian aviation.

2. The National Museum of Science and Technology, the newest of the four National Museums, opened in November 1967. This Museum challenges over three-quarters of a million visitors a year to climb, push or just view its definitive collections. An additional quarter of a milliom annually visit the National Aeronautical Collection.

3. Educational programs are developed and conducted by a staff of tour guides on general or topic-oriented subject matter for all age groups. During the summer months a steam train makes a return trip from Ottawa to Wakefield, Que., giving everyone a taste of a bygone era.

4. The Science Museum also participates in the creation of distinct exhibits, many of which are sent on tour throughout Canada. There are also exchanges of artifacts made with museums abroad.

5. The exhibit pavillions contain working examples from the history of ground transportation such as sleighs, streetcars, steam locomotives and antique cars, to aviation - with Canada's first powered heavier-than-air flight. There are also `seeing puzzles', experiments and skill-trying tests in the physics hall. Other displays include transport, meteorology, astronomy, time pieces and a model workshop.

Oral Practice

Business Correspondence

Exercise 1. In the following letter select the item that is more formal.

Dear Mr Kents,

(Thanks/Thank you) for your letter of 20 July. As I am sure you will (understand/ appreciate) I am (most upset/ very sorry) to (hear/learn) that you (were unable to/could not) send me the documents that I (need/require) for my (job/work). I do hope to (get hold of/obtain) them by the end of the month. I can not (complete/finish) my research without them. I (hope/trust) that you will be able to post them (immediately/straight away). (Should you have/ If you have) any difficulties in doing it, please (inform me/let me know).

I (look /am looking) forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely,

Robin Hazard

Exercise 2. Write a reply to the letter. Apologize for the delay and

give reasons for it: some of the documents are irreplaceable

and you can give only copies.

Exercise 3. What would you say if:

1. You are speaking with an English businessman in your office. A telephone is

ringing. You want to answer the telephone.

2. You meet English businessmen in your office. You want to reduce the price for

their equipment.

3. Your American colleague asks you to inform him about the date and agenda of

your next meeting.

4. Your partner invites you to the Covent Garden.

5. You are at a table at a restaurant with your business colleagues. You want to leave the table for some time.

Exercise 4. Learn the dialogue given below and make up its continuation.

Opening a Conference

Chairman - Ladies and Gentlemen, could I have your attention, please?

Thank you. Today we have gathered to discuss the crucial

problem of environmental protection. We have one of the

most famous experts in the field to speak to you today. It's

my proud duty to present Mr Simpson.

Mr Simpson - Thank you, Mr Chairman. Thank you, ladies and gentlemen.

I am very honoured to be envited to speak to such

knowledgeable audience . . .

APPENDIX

ОБЩИЕ ПРИНЦИПЫ ПЕРЕВОДА

Главной задачей любого перевода является точная передача подлинника средствами родного языка, руководствуясь правилами последнего. Перед тем, как начать перевод, необходимо понять общее содержание текста, смысловые связи текста в целом и каждого предложения в отдельности. При переводе допустимо «разбивать» слишком длинные предложения оригинала на несколько предложений, или объединять несколько простых предложений в сложное предложение. Иногда можно добавлять нужные слова в переводе, если в этом есть стилистическая необходимость, и это не приводит к искажению смысла подлинника.

Основой перевода служит лексико-грамматический анализ текста.

В начале анализа необходимо найти подлежащее и сказуемое, определить второстепенные члены предложения.
Если предложение содержит союзы или союзные слова, необходимо определить, какие связи они выражают. Например, союзы and, or выражают сочинительную связь, т.е. могут соединять два и более самостоятельных предложения. Союз when указывает на наличие временной связи, though, although - на наличие уступительной связи в предложении и т.д.
Следующим шагом является анализ самого сказуемого - его время,

залог, наклонение.

Затем необходимо провести морфологический разбор предложений (существительные, прилагательные и т.д.), руководствуясь полученными знаниями о суффиксах и префиксах. Здесь необходимо помнить о многозначности слов и руководствоваться контекстом при переводе слов, имеющих несколько значений (print - оттиск, отпечаток, гравюра, штамп, набивная ткань, печатать); о лексических и грамматических омонимах - словах, имеющих одинаковое звучание и написание, но различное лексическое или грамматическое значение ( use - польза ; пользоваться); о сочетаниях одного и того же глагола с различными предлогами (to set about - приниматься за что-либо; to set smb to do smth - заставлять кого-либо приняться за работу; to set smb at smb, smth - натравить кого-либо на…, и т.д.)
Нельзя забывать об эмфатических (усилительных) конструкциях:

It is to him that I owe the best of my knowledge.

Именно ему я обязан всеми своими знаниями.

I do want to help you. Я очень хочу помочь вам.

Помните о правилах перевода инфинитивных, причастных и

герундиальных оборотов: далеко не всегда при переводе удается использовать те же самые грамматические и лексические средства, которые имеются в подлиннике: иногда приходится полностью изменять строй предложения, заменять части речи и т.д.

Не всегда можно дать прямой перевод фразеологического оборота, идиомы, пословицы или поговорки. В таком случае подбирается соответствующий эквивалент:

He wouldn't hurt a fly Он и мухи не обидит

но

A skeleton in the cupboard Семейная тайна

Too many cooks spoil the broth. У семи нянек дитя без глазу.

«Ложные друзья переводчика» - Зачастую слова латинского и греческого происхождения, а также некоторые другие интернациональные слова имеют одинаковое значение в разных языках:

principle - принцип; limit предел, лимит; legal - легальный

Но иногда такое сходство является обманчивым:

Complexion - цвет лица (а не комплекция); actual - фактический, действительный (а не актуальный); concrete - бетон (может также иметь значение «конкретный»)

Если сомневаетесь в значении таких слов, руководствуйтесь при переводе контекстом или лишний раз загляните в словарь.

Give lexical, grammatical and syntactical analysis of the following texts and translate them into Russian.

Influence of inhibitor ions and conversion coatings on localized corrosion of

Al and Al alloys.

Chromate and dichromate ions are widely used to inhibit the corrosion of Al and its alloys. They are effective when added to a corrosive liquid, when incorporated in a conversion coating, or added as a pigment in paint. While conversion coatings or paint can reduce corrosion by forming a protective barrier, it has also been considered that chromate in these layers acts by dissolving into local environments and inhibiting the dissolution reaction. It is therefore of interest to know how chromates affect the dissolution kinetics in localized corrosion reactions. In this work, the kinetics of pit growth in thin-film aluminium samples are being studied.

Thin films have been found to be a useful vehicle for the study of pitting

kinetics. Essentially, the pitting process is simplified by the removal of one dimension, so that pit growth is restricted to two dimensions. 2-D pits in thin films grow in a steady-state fashion with a constant pit depth, and a pit current density that is constant with time but is a function of applied potential. Analysis

of the images of growing pits provides a useful approach for determining the pit current density as a function of potential.

(Corrosion Prevention & Control, February 1998, p.2)

Flexible cable reduces fatigue.

According to Mr. Wagman, the split lead also increases cable flexibility, which means very easy manipulation of the torch which reduces welder fatigue as well as leading to fewer weld defects. “The light weight and flexibility of the torch has enabled us to do single pass welds on anodized aluminium tubing, so workpiece repositioning in many instances has been eliminated, saving more time and further increasing productivity”' says Wagman.

“Our welders find the D-shaped handle very comfortable and easy to work with. They also have a better control of the torch because the D-shape eliminates the problem of handle rotation which is a common occurance with conventional round handled torches. The better control also leads to better welds and fewer defects.”,

says Wagman.

(Welding&Metal Fabrication, November-December 1997, p.24)

Ipsen Abar UK Ltd.

Ipsen Abar UK Ltd. will be exhibiting the range of Vacuum and Atmosphere, batch, multi-chamber and continuous furnaces manufactured by the Ipsen Group in Germany and the USA.

Products featured will include Ipsen's latest “Turbotreater” vacuum hardening furnace, the twin chamber “Jet-Hardener” vacuum furnace, Ipsen sealed quench furnaces and furnaces for both low pressure and plasma carburising using either high pressure gas or oil quenching.

The growing range of Ipsen sensors will be shown, including the Ipsen Flux sensor for computerized control of gas quenching and the Ipsen oil quench flux sensor.

Ipsen's software systems for computerized control of furnace cycles will also been shown. The status of all furnaces and the loads within can be constantly monitored enabling instant progressing of orders.

(Exhibition “Furnaces 2000” Newsletter, England, March 2000, p.2)

New roll cuts maintenance.

Conductive rollers for electroplating based on an entirely new and patented design concept have been developed by French company, Polimiroir. There is no copper on the external surface of the roller ensuring that the electrical conductivity will remain constant throughout the production process. The internal cooling system is highly efficient and durable. The conductive copper core is entirely hidden within the steel parts of the shafts, and is therefore completely maintenance free.

Polimiroir produces conductive rollers for two types of electroplating production lines commonly used in the sheet metal sector: zinc electroplating lines for steel sheets destined for the automotive and domestic electrical appliances industries, and tinning and chroming lines for metal sheets used for food and drink canning.

With the new technology, no adjustments are necessary to machinery set for the external dimensions of traditional rollers.

(Steel Times, October 1999, p.389)

Steel industry using plastics as reducing agent.

Japanese engineers some time ago established a technique for using discarded plastics as a reducing agent for iron ores; already this technique has been applied

To the construction of a plant which began operation in October 1996, at a processing capacity of 30 000 tones per year. This plant works as follows:

With the lower section (air opening) fanning in air at a temperature of about 1200?C, a blast furnace gasifies coke as well as coal dust blown in from the air opening, and this high-temperature gas is used not only to reduce sintering ores but also to melt iron generated. Discarded plastics, which have been crushed and granulated to less than 10mm in diameter, are blown in through this air opening and are gasified instantaneously. As a result, this operation has various remarkable features, such as reducing the generation of plastic wastes simply, reducing the amount of coke used, leading to savings in coal as natural resource, lessening the amount of carbon dioxide generated, thereby contributing slightly to the prevention of global warming, and generating no toxic gaseous byproducts, with non-toxic byproduct gas used for power generation at an existing factory. In addition, the blast furnace used in this plant has an energy efficiency of more than 80 percent, thereby surpassing other recycling processes in terms of savings in natural resources and energy.

(Tech Japan, vol.30, N3, March 1997, p.31)

Time Compressed tooling for the 21^st century.

As the race to get a product to market speeds up, the drive to decrease tooling lead times will increase as well. This drive in time compression in the manufacturing sector leads to unique opportunities to create tooling via non traditional methods that dramatically reduce lead times while not sacrificing mechanical properties. Rapid tooling was fabricated at Penn States P/M Lab using powder metallurgy process combining the processing of various metals and or ceramic powders to form a tool set with tailored mechanical properties. The new process has potential uses in the automotive, toy, electronics, medical, and metal die casting industries as well as significant implications for the manufacturing industry as a whole. Recent reports estimate that total profits on new products are reduced by as much as 60 percent by a company's inability to get a product to market quickly.

This technology has the potential to contribute to the next generation of mold-making materials. When commercialized, the process will collapse the time needed for producing tool sets from weeks and months to several days. In addition to molds and tool sets for manufacturing, the process can produce metal prototypes and may be useful for limited-production parts.

(P/M Science & Technology Briefs, v.1, N1, 1999, p.20)

Metal clusters and magic numbers.

Heat a small piece of metal unit until it starts to evaporate. Blow the vapor through a slim nozzle into a vacuum chamber. What happens? The spray of particles will condense into tiny clusters containing anywhere from a few to several thousand atoms of the metal. These metal clusters, much smaller than drops of water or grains of sand, constitute a fascinating new arrangement of matter.

Although most cluster experiments involve rather tiny objects, in principle, metal clusters can be arbitrarily large. These aggregates thus fall between isolated atoms or molecules and bulk solids or liquids. In this sense they link the microcosm with the macrocosm. To a theoretical physicist, clusters present a host of intriguing questions: Why are some clusters more stable than others? How many atoms are needed before the properties of a cluster begin to resemble those of bulk matter? And how does the structure of a cluster change as more and more atoms join together?

But interest in metal clusters is not entirely restricted to theoretical physicists. For example, industrial chemists know from practice that metal clusters might make exceptionally good catalysts. Yet metal clusters may be difficult to harness more effectively until the principles underlying their formation are well understood - a goal that has come increasingly close to being realized over the past decade.

(Scientific American, December 1997, p.50-51)

Silicon-casting Processes: Melting in Mold.

Several methods for the casting of silicon have been used in the past 60 years, and the articles cast have covered the range from dental mirrors to pipes for highly reactive chemicals to precision infrared optics. The need for the latter put more emphasis on the perfection of casting techniques than any other application.

Melting in mold is one of the techniques. In principle, melting silicon directly in a mold should be the simplest method of all. There are, however, some fundamental difficulties. The mold material is usually slightly soluble in molten silicon and thus introduces unwanted impurities. The silicon bonds to many mold materials as it cools so that differential thermal contraction causes the silicon to shatter. It is also inconvenient to heat a mold for some shapes, e.g., a rod 1/2 in. in diameter by 3 ft long.

The formation of sound castings must also be considered. This problem is, unfortunately, not independent of the mold material, since whether or not the silicon adheres to the container has a great influence on the casting integrity.

(W.R. Reunion. Silicon Semiconductor Technology, N.Y. 1965, p.17)

The names of some subjects studied by students of metallurgy:

Автоматизированный контроль произ- Automated Control of Production

водства

Автоматизация производства Automated Manufacture

Высокие технологии Advanced Technologies

Гидрометаллургия Hydrometallurgy

Динамика Dynamics

Инновационное проектирование Innovation Designing

Информационные технологии Computers and information

technologies

Композиционные материалы Composites

Коррозия металлов Metal Corrosion

Кристаллография Crystallography

Лазерная техника и оптические приборы Lazers and Optics

Литейное производство Casting (production)

Материаловедение Materials Science

Математические основы материаловедения Maths for Materials science

Металловедение Metals Science

Металлургия стали Metallurgy of Steel

Механика Mechanics

Механика твердого тела Mechanics of Solids

Mоделирование производственных систем Modelling of Production

Systems

Начертательная геометрия Technical Design

Неорганическая химия Inorganic Chemistry

Обработка металлов Metal Processing

Обработка металлов давлением (Metal Processing with Deformation

Общая химия General Chemistry

Органическая химия Organic Chemistry

Порошковая металлургия Powder Metallurgy

Ресурсосбережение Conservation and Recycling

of Materials

Сопротивление материалов Strength (Resistance) of Materials

Теплотехника Heat -transfer

Термодинамика Thermodynamics

Управление производством Manufacturing Management

Физика деформации и разрушения Physics of Deformation and

Destruction

Физика полупроводников Physics of Semiconductors

Физическая культура PT (Physical Training)

Физическая металлургия стали и Physical Metallurgy of Steel and

высокопрочных сплавов High-Strength Alloys

Физические свойства твердых тел Physical Properties of Solids

Электроника Electronic Engineering,

Electronics

Электрометаллургия стали и ферросплавов Electrometallurgy of Steel and

Ferrous Metals

Экология Environmental Issues; Ecology

Экономика Economics

Understanding Mathematical Terms

Units and

Units on SI and ISO standards handbook 2.1979				Units based on the foot, pound and others; definitions and conversion factors, further abbreviations. examples
Quantity		Name of unit	Internal symbol
Time	t	Second Minute Hour day	s min h d	Time: T; year(s): yr(s); day(s): dy(dys); hour(s): hr(s); minute(s): min(s)=' second(s): sec(s)="; e.g. 4'30"
Length	l	Metre nautical mile	M n mile	inch: 1 in=25.4 mm (abbr.: i, in(s)) foot: 1 ft =12 in =0.3048 m e.g. 13'3" = 13 ft 3 in yard: 1 yd=3 ft=36 in=0.9144 m mile: 1 mile=5280 ft= 1609.344 m (abbr.: m, ml(s))
Area	A	square metre	m²	square inch: in² (sq in) square foot: ft² (sq ft) square yard: yd² (sq yd) square mile: mile² (sq ml) 1 acre =4840 yd²
Volume	V	cubic metre litre	m³	cubic inch: in^cu.in) cubic foot: ft³ (cu.ft) cubic yard: yd³ (cu.yd) UK: gallon: 1 gal =277.42 in3 = 4.54609 dm³pint: 8pt=1 gal; fluid ounce: 160 fl oz=1 gal bushel: 1 bushel =8 gal US: gallon: 1 gal =231 in³=0.832674 gal (UK) =3.78541 dm³liquid pint: 8 liq pt=1 gal; fluid ounce: 128 fl oz=1 gal barrel: 1 barrel =42 gal (for petroleum) bushel: 1 bu= 2150.42 cu.in; dry pint: 64 dry pt=1 bu dry barrel: 1 bbl=7056 тэ= 115.627 dm³ (dry)
Velocity	u,w v,c	metre per second kilometre per hour knot	m/s km/h kn	foot per second: 1 ft/s= 0.3048 m/s mile per hour: 1 mile/h= 0.44704 m/s 1 km/h =1/3.6 m/s =0.277778 m/s 1 kn=1 n mile per hour =0.514444 m/s
Acceleration	a	metre per second squared	m/s²	foot per second squared: 1 m/s²= 0.3048 m/s²
Frequency	f,v	hertz	Hz
Mass	m	kilogram tonne	kg t	pound: 1 lb= 0.453592237 kg; grain: 7000 gr=1 Ib ounce: 1 oz=1/16 lb= 28.349 g; 1 troy ounce =480 gr stone: 1 st=14 Ib (weight); hundredweight: 1 cwt=112 Ib metric ton (UK) = 1000 kg
Force	F	newton	N	1 N is that force which, when applied to a body having a mass of 1 kg, gives it an acceleration of 1 m/s². pound force: 1 lbf= 4.44822 N
Pressure	P	Pascal bar	Pa bar	1 Pa=1 N/m²; 1 bar^O-'Pa pound force per square inch: 1 Ibf/in²^ 684.76 Pa
Work, Energy	W,E	Joule watt hour	J Wh	1 J=1 Nm=1Ws; 1 Wh=3.6x10³J 1 Kwh=3.6 MJ (megajoule) foot pound-force: 1 ft lbf= 1.35582 J
Power	P	Watt	W	1W=1 J/s = V x A foot pound-force per second: 1 ft ibf/s = 1.35582W horsepower: 1hp = 550 ft lbf/s = 745.7W
Heat	Q	Joule	J	British thermal unit: 1Btu = 778.169 ft lbf = 1056.06 J
Temperature	T	Degree Celsius	C K	Degree Fahrenheit: 1 F = 9/5 tC +32 e.g. 32F = 0C: thirty two degrees Fahrenheit equals zero (nought) Degrees centigrade
Electric current	L	Ampere	A	Ampere(s): amp(s)
Electromotive force	E	Volt	V	e.g. 24V = twenty four volts
Resistance	R	Ohm	?	1 ? = 1 V / A

0,1 - o (zero) point one 0,01 - o (zero) point o (zero) one

0,25 - o (zero) point twenty five - a quarter

0,5 - o (zero) point five - a half

4,3 - four point three

1/4 - a quarter, one quarter; one fourth 1/2 - a half, one half

3/8 - three eighth 1/3 - one third, a third

+ - plus (sign of addition), positive - - minus (sign of substraction),

negative

± - plus or minus

x - times by (multiplication sign) : - sign of division, devided by

a=b - a equals b a# b - a does not equal b

a ~ b - a approximately equals b a > b - a is greater than b

a < b - a is less than b x = ? - x approaches infinity

2x2=4 - twice two equals two 1:2 - the ratio of one to two --> [Author:М.С.]

4? - four square y? - y cubed; y cube

25c/o - twenty five per cent 31 m.p.h. - 31 miles per hour

‰ - per mille 200 r.p.m. - 200 revolutions per

? 9 - the square root of nine minute

Metric Equivalents

1 inch (in.) = 2,54 centimetres 1 yard (yd) = 0,91 metre

1 mile (m.) = 1,61 kilometres 1 pound (lb) = 0,45 kilograms

1 pint = 0,57 litres

0? C (zero degrees Centigrade) = 32? F (thirty two degrees Fahrenheit)

Some Abbrevations

a/cm.І - ампер на квадратный cантиметр

A.D - anno domini (лат.)-нашей эры

BC - before Christ - до нашей эры

С - Сelsius, Centigrade -пo шкале Цельсия (стоградусной шкале)

cmm - cubic millimetre

cmps - centimetre per second

cu - cubic - кубический

CW - continuous wave - непрерывного действия (о лазере)

CWT - hundredweight (центнер = 50.8 - Великобритания, 45.3 - США)

dia - diameter

dz - dozen - дюжина

e.c. - exempli causa (лат) - например

EDT - electronic data processing

e.g. - exempli gratia (лат.) - например

emu - electromagnetic unit

eng. -engineer, engineering

eq. - equal, equation

EQ - environmental quality

etc. - etcetera (лат.) - и так далее

F - Fahrenheit по шкале Фаренгейта

f. - foot - фут

kc/s - kilocycles per second - килогерц в секунду

Mhz - мегагерц

p/h - per hour - в час

T - temperature, tension - температура, напряжение

T, tn - тонна

v - velocity -

v - volume

X-rays -

fp - freezing point

Glossary

Abrasive - aбразивный, шлифовальный

Absorb - поглощать, абсорбировать

аcceleration - ускорение

accomplishment - завершение; достижение цели

accuracy - точность

adjust - приспосабливать, регулировать

adhere - соединяться, сцепляться

advance - 1)прогресс; движение вперед; 2)двигаться вперед

advantage - преимущество

advertise - рекламировать, объявлять

advise - советовать

age - 1)возраст; век

agent - средство, вещество

aggregate - агрегат, комплект

air - воздух; 2)воздушный; 3)проветривать

allowance - 1)допуск, разрешение; 2) пособие

alloy - сплав

casting ~ - литейный сплав

conventional ~ - традиционный сплав

fusible ~ - легкоплавкий сплав

resistance ~ - сплав высокого сопротивления

superplastic ~ - сверхпластичный сплав

tin-base ~ - сплав на оловянной

основе

alumina - глинозем

aluminium - алюминий

amount - количество

ancient - древний

angle - угол (мат.)

antimony - сурьма

anvil - наковальня

apparent - очевидный

apparatus - прибор, аппарат

application - применение

appraisal - оценка

approach - 1)подходить; 2)подход

approximate - приблизительный

arc - дуга

welding ~ - сварочная дуга

area - площадь, район

armour - доспехи, броня

arrangement - расположение, размещение

assembly - агрегат, комплект

assume - принимать, предполагать

attach - присоединять

attempt - пытаться

auxiliary - вспомогательный

available - доступный

avoid - избегать

axis - ось

band - полоса, ремень

bar - брусок, стержень

brass ~ - латунная чушка

bulb ~ - бимсовая сталь

refractory ~ огнеупорный брус

barrier - барьер

base - 1)основа; 2) основывать

basin - бассейн, резервуар

batch - дозировка, порция

bath - чан, ванна

bearing - подшипник

beat - бить

berryllium - бериллий

bilateral - двусторонний

billet - заготовка

blade - клинок, лезвие

blank - 1) пустой ; 2)заготовка

blast - взрыв

blast-furnace - доменная печь

blend - смесь, сплав

blister - пленка, окалина

body - тело

bond - связь, соединение

booster - усилитель

border - граница

boron - бор (газ)

bow - дуга

branch - отрасль

brass - латунь

break - 1)ломать; 2) излом

bright - яркий

bubbling - кипение

build - строить

bulk - масса, объем

burn - гореть, сжигать

burst - вспышка

Capacity - емкость; способность

Carbon - углерод

~ dioxide - двуокись углерода

~ monoxide - окись углерода

carburiяe - цементировать

carry out - выполнять

cast - 1)лить, отливать; 2)отливка

casting - литье, отливка

solid ~ - сплошная отливка

shaped ~ - фасонное литье

cavity - трещина, выемка

centre - 1)центр; 2) устанавливать по

центру

centrifugal - центробежный

ceramics - керамика, гончарное про-

изводство

certificate - удостоверение, сертификат

chamber - отсек, котел, камера

air ~ - воздушная камера

diffuser ~ - смесительная камера

slag ~ - шлаковая камера

change - 1)изменение; 2) изменяться

сhemical ~ - химическая реакция

charcoal - древесный уголь

charge - 1) заряжать; 2) загрузка

atomic ~ -атомный заряд

extra ~ - дополнительная нагрузка

fuel ~ - загрузка топлива

iron ~ - металлическая часть шихты

cheap - дешевый

chilling - охлаждение

chrome - хром

circle - окружность, круг

circuit - цепь, контур, циркуляция

сlockwise - по часовой стрелке

cluster - пучок, кисть

coarse - грубый, необработанный

coat - 1) слой; 2) покрывать

coating - покрытие

plated ~ - металлическое покрытие

coin - монета;

coining - чеканка

coke - кокс

blast furnace ~ - доменный кокс

foundry ~ - литейный кокс

сombustion - горение, окисление, сго-

рание

comparison - сравнение

compound - соединение, смесь, состав

compression - сжатие, давление

condition - условие

conduct - проводить

conductor - проводник

~ of heat - проводник тепла

~ of electricity - ~ электричества

conservation - консервация, сохранение

construction - конструкция, строительство

сonsumption - расход, потребление

contain вмещать

continuous - непрерывный

conventional - обычный, традиционный

convert - преобразовывать

cool - охлаждать

copper - медь

corrode - ржаветь

corrosion - окисление, ржавление

~ -resistant - устойчивый к коррозии

corrosive - коррозирующее вещество

craft - ремесло, искусство

сraftsmanship - мастерство

crucible - тигель

~ process - процесс тигельной плавки

current - электрический ток; текущий

cut - 1) резать; 2) надрез, порез

cutlery - 1)столовые приборы; 2) ножевые

изделия

Damage - 1) повредить; 2) повреждение

Damp - влажный

Dark - темный

Darken - темнеть

Data - данные, сведения

Decade - десяток, десятилетие

Decay - упадок, разрушение

Degree - степень, градус

Dense - плотный, густой

Density - плотность, густота

Deposit - залежь, отложения

Detect - обнаруживать

Deviation - отклонение

Device - устройство, приспособление

Die - штамп, матрица

Dilute - растворять

Discard - 1) брак; 2) сбрасывать

Discover - открывать (ч.- л .новое)

Dismantle - разбирать на части

Displace - перемещать, сдвигать

Disruption - распад

Distortion - деформация

Distribute - распределять

Diverse - разнообразный

Diversion - отклонение

Diversity - разнообразие

Devide - делить

Double - двойной

Draw - 1)тянуть, вытягивать; 2) чертить

Drawback - недостаток

Drawing - чертеж, рисунок

Dry - сушить

Ductile - ковкий

Durability - 1) длительность; 2)износостойкость

Dust - пыль

edge - лезвие, кромка

effect - действие, эффект

effectiveness - эффективность

elastic - эластичный

elasticity - упругость, деформация

electric - электрический

electrical - электротехнический

electricity - электричество

element - элемент

alloying ~ - легирующая добавка

eliminate - удалять, исключать

elongate - удлинять

emerge - возникать, появляться

emergence - появление, возникновение

emergency - чрезвычайный, аварийный

emission - эмиссия, распространение,

испускание

employ - принимать на работу

engineer - инженер

metallurgical ~ - инженер-металлург

engineering - техника, технический

civil ~ - гражданское строительство

industrial ~ организация производства

safety ~ - техника безопасности

engraving - 1)гравирование; 2) профилирование

environment - окружающая среда

equation - уравнение

equipment - оборудование

essential - основной, важный

estimation - оценка, подсчет

etching - травление (на металле), гравирование

evaluate - оценивать

evaporate - выпаривать

evolution - развитие, эволюция

excavation - раскопка, рытье котлована

excite - возбуждать

exhaust - 1) утомлять; 2) выхлоп

expansion - расширение, растяжение

expense - затрата, расход

experiment - опыт

exposed - незащищенный

extract - добывать, извлекать

extrude - штамповать с вытяжкой, выдавливать

Fabricate - изготовлять, производить

Face - грань, фасетка

facing - обточка, обработка поверхности

facility - средство, устройство

fail - отказывать в работе, выходить из строя

fatigue - усталость

fault - вина, ошибка

feature - 1) характерная черта; 2) признак

feed - 1) кормить; 2) подача

ferrite - феррит

ferrous - железистый

~ metals - черные металлы

fertilizer - минеральное удобрение

fineness - точность, тонкость, мелкозернистость

finish - заканчивать, завершать

finishing - чистовая обработка

fill - наполнять

fire - огонь

fix - укреплять, закреплять

flammable - огнеопасный

flatten - 1) выпрямлять, сглаживать,

2) сплющивать

flexible - эластичный, гибкий

flow - поток, течение

fluctation - колебание

fluid - жидкий, текучий

flux - поток, флюс, плавень

fluxible - плавкий

force - 1) сила, усилие; 2) заставлять, вынуждать

forced - вынужденный

forge - 1) ковать, прессовать, штамповать; 2) подделывать

forging - 1)ковка; 2) подделка

die ~ - горячая штамповка

hot ~ - горячая ковка

hydraulic ~ - штамповка на гидравлическом прессе

form - 1) форма; 2) придавать форму

forming - штамповка

foundry - 1) литье, литейное производство; 2) литейный цех

fraction - дробь, фракция, осколок

fracture - разрыв, излом

fragile - хрупкий, ломкий

framework - каркас, конструкция

free - 1)свободный; 2)освобождать

freezing point - точка затвердевания

frequency - частота

friction - трение

fuel - горючее, топливо

furnace - печь

blast ~ - доменная печь

continuous ~ - печь непрерывного

действия

еlectric-arc ~ - электродуговая печь

high-frequency induction ~ - высокочастотная печь

open-hearth ~ - мартеновская печь

reverberatory ~ - отражательная печь

rotary ~ - кольцевая печь

side-discharged ~ - печь с боковой разгрузкой

fuse - плавить, сплавлять, сваривать

gain - 1)приобретать; 2)прибыль

galena - 1) галенит; 2) свинцовый блеск

gauged - калиброванный

general - общий

generalize - обобщать

generate - 1)производить; 2)обрабатывать

glitter - яркий блеск

gouge - скоблить

gold - золото

alluvial~ -аллювиальное золото

beaten ~ - листовое золото

fine ~ - высокопробное золото

gold-plating - золочение

goldsmith - золотых дел мастер

goods - товары, материалы

grade - градус, сорт, качество

grain - 1) зерно; 2) гранула

graph - график, диаграмма

grate - решетка, сетка

grid-iron - сетка, решетка

grind - дробить, молоть

grinder - шлифовальное приспособление

grindery - шлифовальный цех

grindstone - точильный камень

grip - 1)тиски, зажим

2) схватывать, зажимать

growth - рост, развитие

Half - половина

hand - 1) рука; 2) рукоятка

~ die - ручной штамп

~ feed - ручная подача

handling - управление, обслуживание

hammer - молот, молоток

hammersmith - кузнец

hardness - твердость

harden - закаливать

hard-rolled - холоднокатанный

hardware - металлические изделия

hard-wearing - износостойкий

hearth - топка, горн

heat - жара

~conducting - теплопроводный

~ -resisting - жаропрочный

~ treatment - термообработка

heating - нагрев

high-frequency induction ~ - высокочастотный нагрев

heavy - тяжелый

height - высота, рост

high-grade - высокосортный, высококачественный

hinge - шарнир, петля

Hittite - хетт

hot - жаркий, горячий

house - 1)дом; 2)давать приют

housing - 1)помещение; 2)кожух

housekeeping - домашнее хозяйство

humidity - сырость, влажность

hypothesis - гипотеза, предположение

idle - нерабочий, бездействующий

identify - отождествлять, служить

отличительным знаком

ignorance - невежество

Impact - 1) влиять, 2) влияние

3) ударять; 4) удар

imply - означать, допускать

impregnate - пропитывать; поглощать

improvement - усовершенствование

impurity - примесь, загрязнение

inaccuracy - неточность

inch - дюйм

incompatible - несовместимый

incorporate - вмещать; включать в себя

increase - 1)увеличивать; 2)прирост

indefinite - неопределенный

independent - независимый

index - схема, указатель

induction - индукция

industry - промышленность

infrared - инфракрасное излучение

ingot - слиток, чушка

inhibit - 1)населять; 2) тормозить

injury - повреждение, вред

inland - внутренний, континентальный

inner - внутренний

innovation - нововведение, техническое новшество

input - ввод, подача

inspire - вдохновлять

installation - установка, внедрение

instаnt - мгновенный

institute - институт

institution - организация, учреждение

insulator - изолятор

interaction - взаимодействие

interference - вмешательство

interchangeble - взаимозаменяемый

interior - 1)интерьер; 2) внутренний;

3) внутренность

internal - внутренний

~ combustion engine - двигатель внутреннего сгорания

invention - изобретение

inventory - инвентаризация, опись

investment - вклад, капиталовложение

ion - ион

iron - железо

alloy cast ~ - легированный чугун

bar ~ - прутковая сталь

burnt ~ - пережженное железо

cast ~ - чугун

ductile - ковкий чугун

foundry ~ - литейный чугун

heat-resisting ~ - жаропрочный чугун

malleable ~ - ковкий чугун

mottled ~ -половинчатый чугун

open-hearth ~ - мартеновский чугун

pig ~ - чугун (чушковый)

scrap~ - чугунный лом

waste ~ - железный лом

white cast ~ - белый чугун

italic - выделенный курсивом

item - пункт, параграф

Jerk - толчок, рывок

jet-engine - реактивный двигатель

jet-propulsion - реактивный двигатель

jewel - драгоценный камень

job - работа

join - присоединяться, примыкать

joint - 1)совместный; 2)соединение, стык

joule - джоуль

journey - путешествие

joy - радость, веселье

jump - прыгать

junction - узел, соединение

juncture - шов, спай

junk - утиль, отходы

Key - ключ; клавиша; шпонка

kick - 1) толкать; 2) толчок, бросок

kiln - сушильная печь

kindle ( a fire) - зажигать

kinetic - кинетический

knife - нож

knive - рыцарь

knock - стучать

Laboratory - лаборатория

Labour - труд

Lack - нехватка, недостаток

ladder-type - многоступенчатый

ladle - ковш

lag (behind) - отставать

last - 1) последний; 2) продолжаться

lattice - сетка, решетка

launch - запускать, начинать

lay - класть, укладывать

layer - слой, пласт

lead - свинец

leaching - выщелачивание

leader - руководитель, лидер

leave - 1) покидать; 2)отпуск;

leakage - протекание

legacy - наследие

length - длина, расстояние

lengthen - удлинять

limestone - известняк

limit - граница, предел, допуск

limitation - ограничение

link - связь, звено

liquefy - сжижать

liquid - жидкое вещество

list - список, перечень

load - 1)груз, нагрузка; 2)нагружать

location - местонахождение

loose - свободный, без-

размерный

lose - терять

loss - потеря

low - низкий, недостаточный

lower - понижать

lubricate - смазывать

lump - глыба, ком, кусок

luster - блеск

machine - машина, механизм, станок

single-strand ~ - одноручьевая установка непрерывной разливки

machinable - поддающийся машинной обработке

machinery - машины, оборудование

magnet - магнит

major - 1)основной, главный; 2)специализироваться

malleable - ковкий, гибкий, тягучий

manganese - марганец

man-made - искусственный

manual - 1)ручной; 2) учебник, руководство

manufacture - 1) производить;2)производство, обработка

match - подходить, сочетать, подгонять

measure - 1)мера; 2)измерять

mechanics - механика

melt - 1)плавить, растворяться; 2)плавка, расплав

melting point - точка плавления

mercury - ртуть

metal - металл

ferrous ~ - черный металл

non-ferrous ~ - цветной металл

secondary ~ - вторичный (обработанный металл)

virgin ~ - необработанный металл

metallic - металлический

metallurgy - металлургический

metallurgist - металлург

metal worker - металлург

metalworking - металлообработка

metric - метрический

mill - 1)молоть, дробить; 2)мельница, фабрика

mild - мягкий

mine - добывать

minor - незначительный, второстепенный

mode - способ, образ

model - модель, образец

modify - слегка изменять

modification - изменение, модификация

molten - расплавленный, жидкий

motion - движение

mottled - крапчатый, покрытый пятнами

mould - форма, изложница

moulding - формовка

multiply - 1)умножать; 2) увеличиться

Nail - гвоздь

Negative - отрицательный

Narrow - узкий, тесный

Native - 1)природный, естественный, 2) местный житель, абориген

nature - природа, характер

needle - игла, шпиль

nitrogen - азот

nuclear - ядерный

nugget - самородок

number - 1)номер; 2)число; 3)цифра

Object - предмет, объект

objective - 1)цель; 2)объективный

obscure - 1)темный, тусклый, непонятный; 2) затемнять

observe - наблюдать

obstacle - препятствие

occur - происходить

occurrence - 1)явление, случай; 2)месторождение, залегание

oil - 1)нефть; 2)растительное масло

open-air - 1)наружный; 2)на открытом воздухе

open-hearth - мартеновский

operation - 1)операция, работа; 2)процесс; 3)математическое действие

opposite - противоположный

order - порядок, последовательность

ore - руда

origin - происхождение, начало

ounce - унция

outer - внешний

outline - 1)контур, очертание; 2)очерчивать

output - 1)продукция; 2)результат

outside - за пределами, снаружи

oxidation - окисление

oxide - окись

oxidize - окисляться

oxygen - кислород

ozone - озон

Page - страница

paint - краска

pair - пара

pale - бледный, тусклый

parent - родитель

~ metal - основной металл

pack - 1)упаковывать; 2)пакет

paddle - лопасть, мешалка

panning - промывка на лотке или в ковше

paper - бумага, документ

part - часть, деталь

participate - принимать участие

particle - частица

particular - особый

pass - 1) проходить; 2)проход

passage - 1)проход, коридор; 2)прохождение

path - путь; траектория

pattern - 1)модель, образец; 2)узор

pay - платить

payment - оплата, платеж

percent - процент

percentage- процентное содержание

penetrate - проникать

permanent - постоянный

permit - 1)разрешать; 2)допускать (мат.)

persistence - постоянство, стойкость

phase - фаза, ступень развития

phenomenon - явление

picture - 1)картина, изображение; 2) кинофильм

picturesque - красочный

pipe - труба

pit - яма, шахта, карьер , копь

pit corrosion - точечная ржавчина

plain - 1)простой; 2)равнина, плоскость

planning - планирование, проектирование

plant - завод, фабрика

plastic - пластмасса, пластик

plasticity - пластичность

plate - 1) тарелка, блюдо; 2)толстый лист металла; 3)покрывать, плакировать

plating - покрытие; металлизация

platinum - платина

plumbing - 1)слесарно-водопроводные работы; 2)жестяные работы

point - 1)точка; 2)указывать

poison - 1)яд; 2)отравлять

polish - шлифовать, полировать

poor - 1) бедный; 2) плохой,

porosity - пористость

positive - положительный

position - положение, размещение

possible - возможный, допустимый

pour - заливать

powder - порошок; порошковый

power - 1) сила; 2)мощность; 3)власть

precede - 1)предварять; 2)превосходить по важности

precipate - выпадать в осадок

precipation hardening - дисперсионное твердение

precise - точный

predict - предсказывать

preliminary - предварительный

press - давить, вдавливать

pressing - 1)прессование; 2) штамповка

pressure - давление, плотность

probable - вероятный

procedure - 1)процедура; 2)метод;

3)технологический процесс

processing - обработка

produce - производить

product - 1)продукт, изделие; 2)результат

production - производство

productivity - производительность

labour ~ - производительность труда

profit - доход, прибыль

prohibit - запрещать

property - собственность

protection - предохранение, защита

puddle - ванночка расплавленного

металла

pudling - пудлингование

pull - 1)тянуть, тащить; 2)тяга, натяжение

pump - 1)качать; 2)насос, помпа

pure - чистый, в чистом виде

purification - очистка

put - класть, положить

quality - качество

quantity - количество

quarter - 1)четверть; 2)квартал

quell - 1)подавлять; 2)успокаивать

quench - закаливать

quenching - закалка

quest - поиски (книжн.)

quick - быстрый

quit - уходить, увольняться

quiet - cпокойный, бесшумный

quotient - отношение, частное (мат.)

radiant - 1)источник света; 2)лучистый

radiate - излучать

range - 1)предел, диапазон

2)классифицировать

rank - 1)класс, категория; 2)строй, шеренга; 3)воинское звание, ранг

rapid - быстрый, скорый

rate - 1)скорость; 2)разряд

ratio - отношение, пропорция

ray - луч

ultra-violet ~ - ультрафиолетовый луч

X-s - рентгеновские лучи

reach - 1)достигать; 2)радиус действия

react - реагировать, взаимодействовать, вступать в реакцию

reactivity - реактивность, химическая активность

reasoning - рассуждение

receive - получать, принимать

recent - недавний, последний

reception - прием

reciprocal - 1)взаимный; 2)эквивалентный 3)обратная величина (мат.)

reciprocate - совершать обратно-поступательное движение

recon - подсчитывать, подводить итог

record - 1)запись; 2)записывать

recover - 1)восстанавливать2)утилизировать;

recovery - 1)восстановление;2)извлечение добыча

rectangular - прямоугольный

reduce - 1)cокращать, уменьшать; 2)восстанавливать

redundant - чрезмерный, избыточный

reference - ссылка, сноска

refractory - огнеупорный

refine - 1)oчищать, рафинировать; 2)облагораживать

refining - очистка, аффинаж

reflect - отражать

reinforcement - усиление, укрепление, армирование

reject - отрицать

relation - связь, зависимость, отношение

relative - относительный

relativity - относительность

relax - ослаблять; расслабляться

reliable - надежный, прочный

remains - остатки, отходы

repair - ремонт

reproduce - воспроизводить

research - 1)исследование; 2)исследовать

reservoir - бассейн, резервуар

resistance - сопротивление

resistivity - сопротивляемость

respond - реагировать

resources - ресурсы

restoration - ремонт, реставрация

restrict - ограничивать, сдерживать

result - 1) результат

return - возврат, отдача

require - требовать

rock - горная порода, камень

rod - стержень

roll - 1)рулон; 2)вращаться; 3)прокатывать

rolling - прокатка

rolling mill - прокатный стан

rotate - вращаться

rough - неровный, грубый

rupture - разлом

rust - 1)ржавчина; 2)покрываться ржавчиной

safe - безопасный

salt - соль

sand - песок

scale - 1)шкала, масштаб; 2)весы

scarcity - редкость

scrap - металлический лом, скрап

schedule - план, расписание

scheme - схема, проект, план

scissors - ножницы

screw - винт

securely - надежно

select - отбирать, сортировать

sense - 1)чувство; 2)смысл

sensitive - чувствительный, восприимчивый

sensor - датчик, чувствительный элемент

separate - разделять, отделять

sequence - последовательность

service - служба, обслуживание

shaft - 1)cтержень, ось; 2) рукоятка;

shape - 1)форма, вид; 2)формовать

sharpen - затачивать, заострять

shears - ножницы

sheet - лист

shield - 1)защищать; 2)щит

shift - 1)смещаться; 2)смещение

shine - 1)сверкать; 2) блеск

shrinkage - усадка

sign - знак, символ

silicon - кремний

simulation - 1)имитация; 2)моделирование

sinter - спекаться

size - размер

shortage - недостаток, нехватка

shovel - лопата, совок

skill - умение, мастерство

slag - шлак

sluicing - промывка (наносов)

smith - кузнец

snap - 1)хватать; 2)ломаться

sodium - натрий

soft - мягкий

solder - 1)припой; 2)паять

soldering - пайка

solid - твердое тело

solidify - затвердевать

solution - 1)решение; 2)раствор

solvent - растворитель

source - источник

speciality - 1)специальность; 2)особенность

specific - 1)характерный; 2) удельный

specifications - требования, спецификация, технические условия

specimen- образец

speed - скорость

split - щель, трещина

spongy - губчатый

spur - шпора

squeeze - сжимать

steam - пар

~ engine - паровой двигатель

~ hammer - паровой молот

steel - cталь

alloy ~ - легированная сталь

basic ~ основная (томасовская)

blue ~ - вороненая сталь

bulk ~ - необработанная сталь

carbon ~ - углеродистая сталь

cast ~ - литая сталь

chilled ~ - закаленная сталь

crucible ~ - тигельная сталь

crude ~ нерафинированная сталь

die ~ - штампованная сталь

forged ~ - прокованная сталь

hard ~ - твердая сталь

hardened ~ - закаленная сталь

high-carbon ~ - высокоуглеродистая

high-speed ~ - быстрорежущая сталь

low-carbon ~ - малоуглеродистая

mild ~ - сварочная сталь

refined ~ - высокосортная сталь

stainless ~ - нержавеющая сталь

tool ~ инструментальная сталь

wrought ~ - кованая сталь

steelwork - сталелитейный завод

steelworker - сталевар

stirrup - хомут, скоба

strength - сила, прочность

stress - напряжение, нагрузка

study - 1)учиться; 2) научное исследование

substance - материя, вещество

substitute - заменять

substraction - вычитание

succession - последовательность

sulphur - сера

supervisor - консультант, научный руководитель

supply - 1)снабжать; 2)снабжение

support - 1)поддерживать; 2)опора

supreme - 1)первостепенный, огромный; 2)верховный

surface - поверхность

survey - обзор

symbol - обозначение, символ, знак

table - 1)стол; 2)таблица

tarnish - тускнеть

technical - технический

tecnique - метод

technological - технологический

temperature - температура

annealing ~ - температура отжига

combustion ~ - температура горения

coolant ~ - “ -“ охлаждающей среды

tempering - закаливание, отпуск металла

tensile - вязкий, тягучий

~ strength - прочность на разрыв

tension - 1)натяжение; 2)напряжение; 3)упругость

term - термин

test - 1)опыт; испытание; 2)проверять

thick - толстый, густой

tighten - затягивать, закреплять

tin - 1)олово; 2)лудить

tinned - 1)луженый; 2)консервированный

titanium - титан

tongs - щипцы, клещи

tool - 1)инструмент; 2)орудие труда; 3)станок

torch - 1)факел; 2) паяльная лампа 3)сварочная горелка

toughness - прочность, твердость

trace - след

traffic - транспорт, движение

trained - обученный, квалифицированный

training - обучение

transfer - передавать, перемещать

transform - преобразовывать

transmission - трансмиссия, передача

transportation - перевозка

treat - обрабатывать

triangle - треугольник

ultimate - предельный, единственный

~ strength - предел прочности

~ tensile strength - предел прочности

на разрыв

umbrella - зонт

unification - унификация ; единообразие

uniform - 1)форма; 2)однородный, равномерный

unilateral - односторонний

unit - 1)единица (измерения); 2)установка, агрегат

universe - вселенная

universal - универсальный, общий

uranium - уран

urban - городской

urge - побуждать, форсировать

urgent - срочный, экстренный

use - 1)польза; 2)использовать

utility - полезность; вещь повседневного обихода

vacancy - пустота, свободное место

vacation - каникулы, отпуск

value - 1)ценность; 2)величина, значение

valve - клапан, вентиль

vanadium - ванадий

vanish - исчезать, пропадать

vapour - пар

vaporize - испаряться

vary - изменяться

vehicle - средство передвижения, машина

vein - жила

velocity - скорость

version - версия; модификация

vital - очень важный

vocation - призвание

volume - 1)объем; 2)емкость; 3)громкость

wages - заработная плата

ware - изделия

waste - отходы

weaken - ослаблять

wear - 1)носить; 2) износ

~ resistant - износоустойчивый

weigh - взвешивать

weight - вес

welding - сварка

wide - широкий

width - ширина

wire - проволока, проводка

work - 1)работа; 2)работать, обрабатывать

workshop - мастерская, цех

worn-out - изношенный

wrinkle - морщина

wrought - кованый

X-ray - облучать рентгеновскими лучами

x-raying - рентгеновский анализ

yield - 1)текучесть металла; 2)выпуск

yielding - пластическая деформация

Zero - ноль

Zink - цинк

zone - зона, район

Contents

Chapter 1

Unit 1 Metal Making and Civilization

text 1 Metals in Perspective _________________________________ 3

Lexical Exercises __________________________________________ 5

Focus on Grammar _______________________________________ 7

text 2 Hephaestus _______________________________________ 9

Oral Practice ___________________________________________ 11

Unit 2

text 1 The Importance of Iron and Advent of Steel _______________ 15

Lexical Exercises __________________________________________ 16

Focus on Grammar ________________________________________ 18

text 2 Some of the Great Names in the History of Metallurgy _____ 23

Oral Practice ____________________________________________ 26

Unit 3

text 1 Iron in the Middle Ages ______________________________ 28

Lexical Exercises ________________________________________ 29

Focus on Grammar _____________________________________ 32

text 2 The Coming of the Vikings __________________________ 34

Oral Practice _______________________________________________37

Unit 4

text 1 The Iron Smelting Without Charcoal: The First Blast Furnaces 40

Lexical Exercises __________________________________________ 41

Focus on Grammar _________________________________________ 43

text 2 The Crusades ________________________________________ 45

Oral Practice ______________________________________________ 47

Chapter 2 The Age of Steel

Unit 1

text 1 The Vast Growth of the Iron and Steel Industry __________ 50

Lexical Exercises ________________________________________ 51

text 2 A Tight Little Island _________________________________ 53

Focus on Grammar ________________________________________ 56

Oral Practice ____________________________________________ 58

Unit 2

text 1 More Progress in Steel Production ______________________ 60

Lexical Exercises _________________________________________ 61

Focus on Grammar ________________________________________ 64

text 2 London ____________________________________________ 66

Oral Practice ______________________________________________ 70

Unit 3

text 1 Steel Production in Sheffield ___________________________ 73

Lexical Exercises _________________________________________ 74

Focus on Grammar _________________________________________ 77

text 2 Higher Education in Britain _________________________ 80

Oral Practice ______________________________________________ 84

Unit 4

text 1 The British Steel Industry Today ________________________86

Lexical Exercises __________________________________________ 88

Focus on Grammar ________________________________________ 91

text 2 Imperial College ____________________________________ 92

Oral Practice ____________________________________________ 97

Chapter 3 Non - Ferrous Metals

Unit 1

text 1 The First Non-Ferrous Metals ______________________ 101

Lexical Exercises __________________________________________102

Focus on Grammar ________________________________________ 105

text 2 British Customs and Traditions _______________________ 107

Oral Practice ____________________________________________ 110

Unit 2

text 1 Precious Metals ____________________________________ 113

Lexical Exercises _________________________________________ 114

Focus on Grammar _______________________________________ 117

text 2 The USA: Land and Climate. History __________________ 119

Oral Practice ___________________________________________ 122

Unit 3

text 1 The Alchemists ____________________________________ 125

Lexical Exercises ______________________________________ 126

Focus on Grammar _____________________________________ 129

text 2 New York _______________________________________ 131

Oral Practice ________________________________________ 134

Unit 4

text 1 Silverware and Plate Industry ________________________ 136

Lexical Exercises ________________________________________ 137

Focus on Grammar ______________________________________ 139

text 2 The US Government ________________________________ 142

Oral Practice ____________________________________________ 145

Chapter 4 Alloys

Unit 1

text 1 Bronze and Brass __________________________________ 148

Lexical Exercises _______________________________________ 149

Focus on Grammar ______________________________________ 151

text 2 Results of Immigration _____________________________ 152

Oral Practice ___________________________________ _______ 156

Unit 2

text 1 Basic Metallurgy of Cast Iron _______________________ 158

Lexical Exercises _______________________________________ 159

Focus on Grammar _______________________________________162

text 2 Education _________________________________________164

Oral Practice ____________________________________________168

Unit 3

text 1 Alloy Steels _______________________________________172

Lexical Exercises ________________________________________173

Focus on Grammar ______________________________________175

text 2 US Customs and Traditions _________________________177

Oral Practice ___________________________________________181

Unit 4

text 1 Aluminium _______________________________________183

Lexical Exercises _______________________________________ 184

Focus on Grammar ______________________________________186

text 2 American English __________________________________188

Oral Practice ____ _____________________________________ 191

Chapter 5 Metal Processing and the Environment

Unit 1

text 1 Casting ___________________________________________ 193

Lexical Exercises ________________________________________ 194

Focus on Grammar ______________________________________ 197

text 2 Canada ___________________________________________ 198

Oral Practice _________________________________________ 201

Unit 2

text 1 Powder Metallurgy _________________________________203

Lexical Exercises ________________________________________ 204

Focus on Grammar _______________________________________ 207

text 2 Metallurgy in Canada _______________________________ 210

Oral Practice ___________________________________________ 213

Unit 3

text 1 Atmospheric Pollution: The Invisible Threat ____________ 215

Lexical Exercises _________________________________________ 216

Focus on Grammar _______________________________________ 219

text 2 Education in Canada ________________________________ 222

Oral Practice _____________________________________________225

Unit 4

text 1 The Mineral Reserve and New Materials_______________ 227

Lexical Exercises _________________________________________229

Focus on Grammar ________________________________________231

text 2 The National Gallery in Canada ______________________ 232

Oral Practice _____________________________________________236

Abrasive - aбразивный, шлифовальный

Absorb - поглощать, абсорбировать

аcceleration - ускорение

accomplishment - завершение; достиже-

ние цели

accuracy - точность

adjust - приспосабливать, регулировать

adhere - соединяться, сцепляться

advance - 1)прогресс; движение вперед;

2)двигаться вперед

advantage - преимущество

advertise - рекламировать, объявлять

advise - советовать

age - 1)возраст; век

agent - средство, вещество

aggregate - агрегат, комплект

air - воздух; 2)воздушный; 3)про-

ветривать

allowance - 1)допуск, разрешение;

2) пособие

alloy - сплав

casting ~ - литейный сплав

conventional ~ - традиционный сплав

fusible ~ - легкоплавкий сплав

resistance ~ - сплав высокого сопро-

тивления

superplastic ~ - сверхпластичный сплав

tin-base ~ - сплав на оловянной

основе

alumina - глинозем

aluminium - алюминий

amount - количество

ancient - древний

angle - угол (мат.)

antimony - сурьма

anvil - наковальня

apparent - очевидный

apparatus - прибор, аппарат

application - применение

appraisal - оценка

approach - 1)подходить; 2)подход

approximate - приблизительный

arc - дуга

welding ~ - сварочная дуга

area - площадь, район

armour - доспехи, броня

arrangement - расположение, разме-

щение

assembly - агрегат, комплект

assume - принимать, предполагать

attach - присоединять

attempt - пытаться

auxiliary - вспомогательный

available - доступный

avoid - избегать

axis - ось

band - полоса, ремень

bar - брусок, стержень

brass ~ - латунная чушка

bulb ~ - бимсовая сталь

refractory ~ огнеупорный брус

barrier - барьер

base - 1)основа; 2) основывать

basin - бассейн, резервуар

batch - дозировка, порция

bath - чан, ванна

bearing - подшипник

beat - бить

berryllium - бериллий

bilateral - двусторонний

billet - заготовка

blade - клинок, лезвие

blank - 1) пустой ; 2)заготовка

blast - взрыв

blast-furnace - доменная печь

blend - смесь, сплав

blister - пленка, окалина

body - тело

bond - связь, соединение

booster - усилитель

border - граница

boron - бор (газ)

bow - дуга

branch - отрасль

brass - латунь

break - 1)ломать; 2) излом

bright - яркий

bubbling - кипение

build - строить

bulk - масса, объем

burn - гореть, сжигать

burst - вспышка

Capacity - емкость; способность

Carbon - углерод

~ dioxide - двуокись углерода

~ monoxide - окись углерода

carburiяe - цементировать

carry out - выполнять

cast - 1)лить, отливать; 2)отливка

casting - литье, отливка

solid ~ - сплошная отливка

shaped ~ - фасонное литье

cavity - трещина, выемка

centre - 1)центр; 2) устанавливать по

центру

centrifugal - центробежный

ceramics - керамика, гончарное про-

изводство

certificate - удостоверение, сертификат

chamber - отсек, котел, камера

air ~ - воздушная камера

diffuser ~ - смесительная камера

slag ~ - шлаковая камера

change - 1)изменение; 2) изменяться

сhemical ~ - химическая реакция

charcoal - древесный уголь

charge - 1) заряжать; 2) загрузка

atomic ~ -атомный заряд

extra ~ - дополнительная нагрузка

fuel ~ - загрузка топлива

iron ~ - металлическая часть шихты

cheap - дешевый

chilling - охлаждение

chrome - хром

circle - окружность, круг

circuit - цепь, контур, циркуляция

сlockwise - по часовой стрелке

cluster - пучок, кисть

coarse - грубый, необработанный

coat - 1) слой; 2) покрывать

coating - покрытие

plated ~ - металлическое покрытие

coin - монета;

coining - чеканка

coke - кокс

blast furnace ~ - доменный кокс

foundry ~ - литейный кокс

сombustion - горение, окисление, сго-

рание

comparison - сравнение

compound - соединение, смесь, состав

compression - сжатие, давление

condition - условие

conduct - проводить

conductor - проводник

~ of heat - проводник тепла

~ of electricity - ~ электричества

conservation - консервация, сохранение

construction - конструкция, строительство

сonsumption - расход, потребление

contain вмещать

continuous - непрерывный

conventional - обычный, традиционный

convert - преобразовывать

cool - охлаждать

copper - медь

corrode - ржаветь

corrosion - окисление, ржавление

~ -resistant - устойчивый к коррозии

corrosive - коррозирующее вещество

craft - ремесло, искусство

сraftsmanship - мастерство

crucible - тигель

~ process - процесс тигельной плавки

current - электрический ток; текущий

cut - 1) резать; 2) надрез, порез

cutlery - 1)столовые приборы; 2) ножевые

изделия

Damage - 1) повредить; 2) повреждение

Damp - влажный

Dark - темный

Darken - темнеть

Data - данные, сведения

Decade - десяток, десятилетие

Decay - упадок, разрушение

Degree - степень, градус

Dense - плотный, густой

Density - плотность, густота

Deposit - залежь, отложения

Detect - обнаруживать

Deviation - отклонение

Device - устройство, приспособление

Die - штамп, матрица

Dilute - растворять

Discard - 1) брак; 2) сбрасывать

Discover - открывать (ч.- л .новое)

Dismantle - разбирать на части

Displace - перемещать, сдвигать

Disruption - распад

Distortion - деформация

Distribute - распределять

Diverse - разнообразный

Diversion - отклонение

Diversity - разнообразие

Devide - делить

Double - двойной

Draw - 1)тянуть, вытягивать; 2) чер-

тить

Drawback - недостаток

Drawing - чертеж, рисунок

Dry - сушить

Ductile - ковкий

Durability - 1) длительность; 2)изно-

состойкость

Dust - пыль

edge - лезвие, кромка

effect - действие, эффект

effectiveness - эффективность

elastic - эластичный

elasticity - упругость, деформация

electric - электрический

electrical - электротехнический

electricity - электричество

element - элемент

alloying ~ - легирующая добавка

eliminate - удалять, исключать

elongate - удлинять

emerge - возникать, появляться

emergence - появление, возникновение

emergency - чрезвычайный, аварийный

emission - эмиссия, распространение,

испускание

employ - принимать на работу

engineer - инженер

metallurgical ~ - инженер-металлург

engineering - техника, технический

civil ~ - гражданское строительство

industrial ~ организация производства

safety ~ - техника безопасности

engraving - 1)гравирование; 2) профили-

рование

environment - окружающая среда

equation - уравнение

equipment - оборудование

essential - основной, важный

estimation - оценка, подсчет

etching - травление (на металле), грави-

рование

evaluate - оценивать

evaporate - выпаривать

evolution - развитие, эволюция

excavation - раскопка, рытье котлована

excite - возбуждать

exhaust - 1) утомлять; 2) выхлоп

expansion - расширение, растяжение

expense - затрата, расход

experiment - опыт

exposed - незащищенный

extract - добывать, извлекать

extrude - штамповать с вытяжкой, вы-

давливать

Fabricate - изготовлять, производить

Face - грань, фасетка

facing - обточка, обработка поверхности

facility - средство, устройство

fail - отказывать в работе, выходить из

строя

fatigue - усталость

fault - вина, ошибка

feature - 1) характерная черта; 2) признак

feed - 1) кормить; 2) подача

ferrite - феррит

ferrous - железистый

~ metals - черные металлы

fertilizer - минеральное удобрение

fineness - точность, тонкость, мелко-

зернистость

finish - заканчивать, завершать

finishing - чистовая обработка

fill - наполнять

fire - огонь

fix - укреплять, закреплять

flammable - огнеопасный

flatten - 1) выпрямлять, сглаживать,

2) сплющивать

flexible - эластичный, гибкий

flow - поток, течение

fluctation - колебание

fluid - жидкий, текучий

flux - поток, флюс, плавень

fluxible - плавкий

force - 1) сила, усилие; 2) застав-

лять, вынуждать

forced - вынужденный

forge - 1) ковать, прессовать, штам-

повать; 2) подделывать

forging - 1)ковка; 2) подделка

die ~ - горячая штамповка

hot ~ - горячая ковка

hydraulic ~ - штамповка на гид-

равлическом прессе

form - 1) форма; 2) придавать форму

forming - штамповка

foundry - 1) литье, литейное производ-

ство; 2) литейный цех

fraction - дробь, фракция, осколок

fracture - разрыв, излом

fragile - хрупкий, ломкий

framework - каркас, конструкция

free - 1)свободный; 2)освобождать

freezing point - точка затвердевания

frequency - частота

friction - трение

fuel - горючее, топливо

furnace - печь

blast ~ - доменная печь

continuous ~ - печь непрерывного

действия

еlectric-arc ~ - электродуговая печь

high-frequency induction ~ - высоко-

частотная печь

open-hearth ~ - мартеновская печь

reverberatory ~ - отражательная печь

rotary ~ - кольцевая печь

side-discharged ~ - печь с боковой раз-

грузкой

fuse - плавить, сплавлять, сваривать

gain - 1)приобретать; 2)прибыль

galena - 1) галенит; 2) свинцовый блеск

gauged - калиброванный

general - общий

generalize - обобщать

generate - 1)производить; 2)обрабатывать

glitter - яркий блеск

gouge - скоблить

gold - золото

alluvial~ -аллювиальное золото

beaten ~ - листовое золото

fine ~ - высокопробное золото

gold-plating - золочение

goldsmith - золотых дел мастер

goods - товары, материалы

grade - градус, сорт, качество

grain - 1) зерно; 2) гранула

graph - график, диаграмма

grate - решетка, сетка

grid-iron - сетка, решетка

grind - дробить, молоть

grinder - шлифовальное приспособ-

ление

grindery - шлифовальный цех

grindstone - точильный камень

grip - 1)тиски, зажим

2) схватывать, зажимать

growth - рост, развитие

Half - половина

hand - 1) рука; 2) рукоятка

~ die - ручной штамп

~ feed - ручная подача

handling - управление, обслуживание

hammer - молот, молоток

hammersmith - кузнец

hardness - твердость

harden - закаливать

hard-rolled - холоднокатанный

hardware - металлические изделия

hard-wearing - износостойкий

hearth - топка, горн

heat - жара

~conducting - теплопроводный

~ -resisting - жаропрочный

~ treatment - термообработка

heating - нагрев

high-frequency induction ~ - вы-

сокочастотный нагрев

heavy - тяжелый

height - высота, рост

high-grade - высокосортный, высо-

кокачественный

hinge - шарнир, петля

Hittite - хетт

hot - жаркий, горячий

house - 1)дом; 2)давать приют

housing - 1)помещение; 2)кожух

housekeeping - домашнее хозяйство

humidity - сырость, влажность

hypothesis - гипотеза, предположение

idle - нерабочий, бездействующий

identify - отождествлять, служить

отличительным знаком

ignorance - невежество

Impact - 1) влиять, 2) влияние

3) ударять; 4) удар

imply - означать, допускать

impregnate - пропитывать; поглощать

improvement - усовершенствование

impurity - примесь, загрязнение

inaccuracy - неточность

inch - дюйм

incompatible - несовместимый

incorporate - вмещать; включать в себя

increase - 1)увеличивать; 2)прирост

indefinite - неопределенный

independent - независимый

index - схема, указатель

induction - индукция

industry - промышленность

infrared - инфракрасное излучение

ingot - слиток, чушка

inhibit - 1)населять; 2) тормозить

injury - повреждение, вред

inland - внутренний, континентальный

inner - внутренний

innovation - нововведение, техническое

новшество

input - ввод, подача

inspire - вдохновлять

installation - установка, внедрение

instаnt - мгновенный

institute - институт

institution - организация, учреждение

insulator - изолятор

interaction - взаимодействие

interference - вмешательство

interchangeble - взаимозаменяемый

interior - 1)интерьер; 2) внутренний;

3) внутренность

internal - внутренний

~ combustion engine - двигатель внут-

реннего сгорания

invention - изобретение

inventory - инвентаризация, опись

investment - вклад, капиталовложение

ion - ион

iron - железо

alloy cast ~ - легированный чугун

bar ~ - прутковая сталь

burnt ~ - пережженное железо

cast ~ - чугун

ductile - ковкий чугун

foundry ~ - литейный чугун

heat-resisting ~ - жаропрочный чугун

malleable ~ - ковкий чугун

mottled ~ -половинчатый чугун

open-hearth ~ - мартеновский чугун

pig ~ - чугун (чушковый)

scrap~ - чугунный лом

waste ~ - железный лом

white cast ~ - белый чугун

italic - выделенный курсивом

item - пункт, параграф

Jerk - толчок, рывок

jet-engine - реактивный двигатель

jet-propulsion - реактивный двигатель

jewel - драгоценный камень

job - работа

join - присоединяться, примыкать

joint - 1)совместный; 2)соединение, стык

joule - джоуль

journey - путешествие

joy - радость, веселье

jump - прыгать

junction - узел, соединение

juncture - шов, спай

junk - утиль, отходы

Key - ключ; клавиша; шпонка

kick - 1) толкать; 2) толчок, бросок

kiln - сушильная печь

kindle ( a fire) - зажигать

kinetic - кинетический

knife - нож

knive - рыцарь

knock - стучать

Laboratory - лаборатория

Labour - труд

Lack - нехватка, недостаток

ladder-type - многоступенчатый

ladle - ковш

lag (behind) - отставать

last - 1) последний; 2) продолжаться

lattice - сетка, решетка

launch - запускать, начинать

lay - класть, укладывать

layer - слой, пласт

lead - свинец

leaching - выщелачивание

leader - руководитель, лидер

leave - 1) покидать; 2)отпуск;

leakage - протекание

legacy - наследие

length - длина, расстояние

lengthen - удлинять

limestone - известняк

limit - граница, предел, допуск

limitation - ограничение

link - связь, звено

liquefy - сжижать

liquid - жидкое вещество

list - список, перечень

load - 1)груз, нагрузка; 2)нагружать

location - местонахождение

loose - свободный, без-

размерный

lose - терять

loss - потеря

low - низкий, недостаточный

lower - понижать

lubricate - смазывать

lump - глыба, ком, кусок

luster - блеск

machine - машина, механизм, станок

single-strand ~ - одноручьевая установка

непрерывной разливки

machinable - поддающийся машинной

обработке

machinery - машины, оборудование

magnet - магнит

major - 1)основной, главный; 2)специа-

лизироваться

malleable - ковкий, гибкий, тягучий

manganese - марганец

man-made - искусственный

manual - 1)ручной; 2) учебник, руковод-

ство

manufacture - 1) производить;2)производ-

ство, обработка

match - подходить, сочетать, подгонять

measure - 1)мера; 2)измерять

mechanics - механика

melt - 1)плавить, растворяться; 2)плавка,

расплав

melting point - точка плавления

mercury - ртуть

metal - металл

ferrous ~ - черный металл

non-ferrous ~ - цветной металл

secondary ~ - вторичный (обработанный металл)

virgin ~ - необработанный металл

metallic - металлический

metallurgy - металлургический

metallurgist - металлург

metal worker - металлург

metalworking - металлообработка

metric - метрический

mill - 1)молоть, дробить; 2)мельница,

фабрика

mild - мягкий

mine - добывать

minor - незначительный, второстепенный

mode - способ, образ

model - модель, образец

modify - слегка изменять

modification - изменение, модификация

molten - расплавленный, жидкий

motion - движение

mottled - крапчатый, покрытый пятнами

mould - форма, изложница

moulding - формовка

multiply - 1)умножать; 2) увеличиться

Nail - гвоздь

Negative - отрицательный

Narrow - узкий, тесный

Native - 1)природный, естественный

2) местный житель, абориген

nature - природа, характер

needle - игла, шпиль

nitrogen - азот

nuclear - ядерный

nugget - самородок

number - 1)номер; 2)число; 3)цифра

Object - предмет, объект

objective - 1)цель; 2)объективный

obscure - 1)темный, тусклый, непонят-

ный; 2) затемнять

observe - наблюдать

obstacle - препятствие

occur - происходить

occurrence - 1)явление, случай; 2)место-

рождение, залегание

oil - 1)нефть; 2)растительное масло

open-air - 1)наружный; 2)на открытом

воздухе

open-hearth - мартеновский

operation - 1)операция, работа; 2)процесс

3)математическое действие

opposite - противоположный

order - порядок, последовательность

ore - руда

origin - происхождение, начало

ounce - унция

outer - внешний

outline - 1)контур, очертание; 2)очерчи-

вать

output - 1)продукция; 2)результат

outside - за пределами, снаружи

oxidation - окисление

oxide - окись

oxidize - окисляться

oxygen - кислород

ozone - озон

Page - страница

paint - краска

pair - пара

pale - бледный, тусклый

parent - родитель

~ metal - основной металл

pack - 1)упаковывать; 2)пакет

paddle - лопасть, мешалка

panning - промывка на лотке или в ковше

paper - бумага, документ

part - часть, деталь

participate - принимать участие

particle - частица

particular - особый

pass - 1) проходить; 2)проход

passage - 1)проход, коридор; 2)прохожде-

ние

path - путь; траектория

pattern - 1)модель, образец; 2)узор

pay - платить

payment - оплата, платеж

percent - процент

percentage- процентное содержание

penetrate - проникать

permanent - постоянный

permit - 1)разрешать; 2)допускать (мат.)

persistence - постоянство, стойкость

phase - фаза, ступень развития

phenomenon - явление

picture - 1)картина, изображение; 2) ки-

нофильм

picturesque - красочный

pipe - труба

pit - яма, шахта, карьер , копь

pit corrosion - точечная ржавчина

plain - 1)простой; 2)равнина, плоскость

planning - планирование, проектирование

plant - завод, фабрика

plastic - пластмасса, пластик

plasticity - пластичность

plate - 1) тарелка, блюдо; 2)толстый лист

металла; 3)покрывать,

плакировать

plating - покрытие; металлизация

platinum - платина

plumbing - 1)слесарно-водопроводные

работы; 2)жестяные работы

point - 1)точка; 2)указывать

poison - 1)яд; 2)отравлять

polish - шлифовать, полировать

poor - 1) бедный; 2) плохой,

porosity - пористость

positive - положительный

position - положение, размещение

possible - возможный, допустимый

pour - заливать

powder - порошок; порошковый

power - 1) сила; 2)мощность; 3)власть

precede - 1)предварять; 2)превосходить

по важности

precipate - выпадать в осадок

precipation hardening - дисперсионное тве

твердение

precise - точный

predict - предсказывать

preliminary - предварительный

press - давить, вдавливать

pressing - 1)прессование; 2) штам-

повка

pressure - давление, плотность

probable - вероятный

procedure - 1)процедура; 2)метод;

3)технологический процесс

processing - обработка

produce - производить

product - 1)продукт, изделие; 2)ре-

зультат

production - производство

productivity - производительность

labour ~ - производительность труда

profit - доход, прибыль

prohibit - запрещать

property - собственность

protection - предохранение, защита

puddle - ванночка расплавленного

металла

pudling - пудлингование

pull - 1)тянуть, тащить; 2)тяга, натя-

жение

pump - 1)качать; 2)насос, помпа

pure - чистый, в чистом виде

purification - очистка

put - класть, положить

quality - качество

quantity - количество

quarter - 1)четверть; 2)квартал

quell - 1)подавлять; 2)успокаивать

quench - закаливать

quenching - закалка

quest - поиски (книжн.)

quick - быстрый

quit - уходить, увольняться

quiet - cпокойный, бесшумный

quotient - отношение, частное (мат.)

radiant - 1)источник света; 2)лучистый

radiate - излучать

range - 1)предел, диапазон

2)классифицировать

rank - 1)класс, категория; 2)строй, шерен-

га; 3)воинское звание, ранг

rapid - быстрый, скорый

rate - 1)скорость; 2)разряд

ratio - отношение, пропорция

ray - луч

ultra-violet ~ - ультрафиолетовый луч

X-s - рентгеновские лучи

reach - 1)достигать; 2)радиус действия

react - реагировать, взаимодействовать,

вступать в реакцию

reactivity - реактивность, химическая

активность

reasoning - рассуждение

receive - получать, принимать

recent - недавний, последний

reception - прием

reciprocal - 1)взаимный; 2)эквивалентный

3)обратная величина (мат.)

reciprocate - совершать обратно-поступа- тельное движение

recon - подсчитывать, подводить итог

record - 1)запись; 2)записывать

recover - 1)восстанавливать2)утилизиро-

вать;

recovery - 1)восстановление;2)извлечение

добыча

rectangular - прямоугольный

reduce - 1)cокращать, уменьшать; 2)вос-

станавливать

redundant - чрезмерный, избыточный

reference - ссылка, сноска

refractory - огнеупорный

refine - 1)oчищать, рафинировать; 2)об-

лагораживать

refining - очистка, аффинаж

reflect - отражать

reinforcement - усиление, укрепление,

армирование

reject - отрицать

relation - связь, зависимость, отношение

relative - относительный

relativity - относительность

relax - ослаблять; расслабляться

reliable - надежный, прочный

remains - остатки, отходы

repair - ремонт

reproduce - воспроизводить

research - 1)исследование; 2)исследовать

reservoir - бассейн, резервуар

resistance - сопротивление

resistivity - сопротивляемость

respond - реагировать

resources - ресурсы

restoration - ремонт, реставрация

restrict - ограничивать, сдерживать

result - 1) результат

return - возврат, отдача

require - требовать

rock - горная порода, камень

rod - стержень

roll - 1)рулон; 2)вращаться; 3)про-

катывать

rolling - прокатка

rolling mill - прокатный стан

rotate - вращаться

rough - неровный, грубый

rupture - разлом

rust - 1)ржавчина; 2)покрываться

ржавчиной

safe - безопасный

salt - соль

sand - песок

scale - 1)шкала, масштаб; 2)весы

scarcity - редкость

scrap - металлический лом, скрап

schedule - план, расписание

scheme - схема, проект, план

scissors - ножницы

screw - винт

securely - надежно

select - отбирать, сортировать

sense - 1)чувство; 2)смысл

sensitive - чувствительный, вос-

приимчивый

sensor - датчик, чувствительный

элемент

separate - разделять, отделять

sequence - последовательность

service - служба, обслуживание

shaft - 1)cтержень, ось; 2) рукоятка;

shape - 1)форма, вид; 2)формовать

sharpen - затачивать, заострять

shears - ножницы

sheet - лист

shield - 1)защищать; 2)щит

shift - 1)смещаться; 2)смещение

shine - 1)сверкать; 2) блеск

shrinkage - усадка

sign - знак, символ

silicon - крем

ний

simulation - 1)имитация; 2)моделиро-

вание

sinter - спекаться

size - размер

shortage - недостаток, нехватка

shovel - лопата, совок

skill - умение, мастерство

slag - шлак

sluicing - промывка (наносов)

smith - кузнец

snap - 1)хватать; 2)ломаться

sodium - натрий

soft - мягкий

solder - 1)припой; 2)паять

soldering - пайка

solid - твердое тело

solidify - затвердевать

solution - 1)решение; 2)раствор

solvent - растворитель

source - источник

speciality - 1)специальность; 2)особен-

ность

specific - 1)характерный; 2) удельный

specifications - требования, специфика-

ция, технические условия

specimen- образец

speed - скорость

split - щель, трещина

spongy - губчатый

spur - шпора

squeeze - сжимать

steam - пар

~ engine - паровой двигатель

~ hammer - паровой молот

steel - cталь

alloy ~ - легированная сталь

basic ~ основная (томасовская)

blue ~ - вороненая сталь

bulk ~ - необработанная сталь

carbon ~ - углеродистая сталь

cast ~ - литая сталь

chilled ~ - закаленная сталь

crucible ~ - тигельная сталь

crude ~ нерафинированная сталь

die ~ - штампованная сталь

forged ~ - прокованная сталь

hard ~ - твердая сталь

hardened ~ - закаленная сталь

high-carbon ~ - высокоуглеродистая

high-speed ~ - быстрорежущая сталь

low-carbon ~ - малоуглеродистая

mild ~ - сварочная сталь

refined ~ - высокосортная сталь

stainless ~ - нержавеющая сталь

tool ~ инструментальная сталь

wrought ~ - кованая сталь

steelwork - сталелитейный завод

steelworker - сталевар

stirrup - хомут, скоба

strength - сила, прочность

stress - напряжение, нагрузка

study - 1)учиться; 2) научное исследование

substance - материя, вещество

substitute - заменять

substraction - вычитание

succession - последовательность

sulphur - сера

supervisor - консультант, научный

руководитель

supply - 1)снабжать; 2)снабжение

support - 1)поддерживать; 2)опора

supreme - 1)первостепенный, огром-

ный; 2)верховный

surface - поверхность

survey - обзор

symbol - обозначение, символ, знак

table - 1)стол; 2)таблица

tarnish - тускнеть

technical - технический

tecnique - метод

technological - технологический

temperature - температура

annealing ~ - температура отжига

combustion ~ - температура горения

coolant ~ - “ -“ охлаждающей среды

tempering - закаливание, отпуск металла

tensile - вязкий, тягучий

~ strength - прочность на разрыв

tension - 1)натяжение; 2)напряжение;

3)упругость

term - термин

test - 1)опыт; испытание; 2)проверять

thick - толстый, густой

tighten - затягивать, закреплять

tin - 1)олово; 2)лудить

tinned - 1)луженый; 2)консервированный

titanium - титан

tongs - щипцы, клещи

tool - 1)инструмент; 2)орудие труда;

3)станок

torch - 1)факел; 2) паяльная лампа

3)сварочная горелка

toughness - прочность, твердость

trace - след

traffic - транспорт, движение

trained - обученный, квалифицированный

training - обучение

transfer - передавать, перемещать

transform - преобразовывать

transmission - трансмиссия, передача

transportation - перевозка

treat - обрабатывать

triangle - треугольник

ultimate - предельный, единственный

~ strength - предел прочности

~ tensile strength - предел прочности

на разрыв

umbrella - зонт

unification - унификация ; единообразие

uniform - 1)форма; 2)однородный,

равномерный

unilateral - односторонний

unit - 1)единица (измерения); 2)установ-

ка, агрегат

universe - вселенная

universal - универсальный, общий

uranium - уран

urban - городской

urge - побуждать, форсировать

urgent - срочный, экстренный

use - 1)польза; 2)использовать

utility - полезность; вещь повседневного

обихода

vacancy - пустота, свободное место

vacation - каникулы, отпуск

value - 1)ценность; 2)величина, значение

valve - клапан, вентиль

vanadium - ванадий

vanish - исчезать, пропадать

vapour - пар

vaporize - испаряться

vary - изменяться

vehicle - средство передвижения, машина

vein - жила

velocity - скорость

version - версия; модификация

vital - очень важный

vocation - призвание

volume - 1)объем; 2)емкость; 3)громкость

wages - заработная плата

ware - изделия

waste - отходы

weaken - ослаблять

wear - 1)носить; 2) износ

~ resistant - износоустойчивый

weigh - взвешивать

weight - вес

welding - сварка

wide - широкий

width - ширина

wire - проволока, проводка

work - 1)работа; 2)работать, обрабаты-

вать

workshop - мастерская, цех

worn-out - изношенный

wrinkle - морщина

wrought - кованый

X-ray - облучать рентгеновскими

лучами

x-raying - рентгеновский анализ

yield - 1)текучесть металла; 2)вы-

пуск

yielding - пластическая деформация

Zero - ноль

Zink - цинк

zone - зона, район

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